The various types of door locks are the perfect items to get your hands on if you want to keep your homes and offices safe or secure different areas within them. Door locks, like no other tool, provide protection and safety while also protecting your privacy. 

There is a vast choice of door locks to choose from, ranging from simple and elegant designs to elegant locks that add value to your doors. 

However, you should choose a lock based not only on its appearance but also on its functionality, efficiency, operation, and other factors.

The door locks are important for the safety and security of one’s house. They are essential for keeping your home or workplace secure and private. With technical advancements and the demand for functionality, we now have a variety of door locks to meet the demands of individuals. In comparison to a private entrance, an office chamber, or gates, a home’s central door may require a tight security lock.

Types of  locks

There are several types of door locks that exist due to the different levels of security and types of doors that must be locked.

1. Barrel BoltBarrel bolts are a type of classic sliding bolt. Nonetheless, they are among the safest to use for secure living inside. A barrel sliding bolt helps lock and unlock these old-fashioned door lock types, and the components that would go with them are fixed on the door frame and the doors.

2. Cam Lock:Cam locks, as the name implies, are not to be confused with any locks that resemble a camera. These have been given names based on their looks. Cam locks are commonly seen near mailboxes, lockers, cabinets, deposit boxes, and other similar items. They’re a much simpler type to use; all you need is a key to turn on a cam that spins to lock or release it. They come in flat or tubular shapes and are quite simple to use.

3. Chain Lock

These chain locks are commonly found inside hotel rooms or on the main doors of houses and apartments. They contribute to providing an extra layer of protection. These chains appear like a bolt to lock in and catch the door frame and door. The benefit of a chain lock like this is that it allows you to open the door slightly to observe who is standing outside without having to open the full door or bolt.

4. DeadboltsIn addition to door knobs, deadbolts are commonly used to provide extra security. Several workplaces and residences use these door lock types in conjunction with doorknobs. To secure a lock system, a single or double cylinder design and hardware system are employed; this reduces the chance of unknown persons inside.

5. Digital or Smart Lock

The most current form of door lock to reach the market is the smart lock. With these locks, your smartphone acts as the key, allowing you to provide remote access to your home from anywhere in the world. Smart locks are frequently much more than locks. These smart locks are part of a larger system that includes audio and video surveillance as well as other smart features that provide you with complete control over your home’s security. 

Most smart locks, like electronic locks, will have a keyhole to use if you aren’t connected to the app. There are three basic types of smart door locks:

Wi-fi Smart Locks

When you are connected to the internet, you can control your device from anywhere using Wi-Fi smart lock systems. You can let someone into your house even if you’re not there. Wi-Fi systems drain batteries much faster than other types of smart locks. As a result, your lock’s batteries may need to be replaced every month or more.

Bluetooth Smart Locks

The batteries in Bluetooth smart lock systems are not drained as quickly. In fact, this is the most commonly used connection for smart locks right now. 

These locks connect directly to your smartphone and will not require the use of a hub. When you’re within range, use your Bluetooth device to unlock or lock your door. 

The disadvantage of Bluetooth smart locks is that you can not operate them while they are out of range. As a result, if you want to be able to operate your doors when you’re away from home, you may want to look into another option. 

Z-wave Smart locks

To control a Z-Wave smart lock using an internet-connected mobile device, you must be connected to a hub. This type of smart lock combines Wi-Fi and Bluetooth locks. To operate, the smart lock must be within a certain distance of the hub. If the hub cannot be placed within an appropriate range, signal range extenders can be used to help enhance the signal.

6. Disc Locks

These types of locks, sometimes known as circular locks, are suitable for storage units or boxes. This is similar to a padlock in appearance and function, but it is more secure and thicker when fastened to the door. The main component here is the curved bar, which protrudes from one side of the lock to travel towards the door handle and then locks back. These can also be detached.

7. Electronic Lock

These are the modern locking mechanisms. There are no keys or devices required to lock or open the door. Instead, a card or keypad with a unique code or bar is used to lock or open the door automatically. These are commonly seen near businesses and hotel rooms. These are powered by electricity or batteries and have a lengthy lifespan. The new improvements in electronic locks also allow others through remote entrance, even without cards, for visitors. A user can get remote access to this electric panel by using door lock types, smartphones, or connected computer systems.

8. Furniture Lock

As the names imply, these locks are great for furniture locks such as desks or cabinets. Furniture locks come in two styles: bolt style and push-style button. Bolt-style furniture locks have a flat metal plate on the side that secures and closes the door. These are particularly well-known in and around cabinets and drawers. These are particularly well-known in the vicinity of cabinets and drawers. The push-type button, on the other hand, is secured by a rod that extends from the back of the lock. The gadget is locked when the lock button is pressed from within. These would be ideal for file cabinets or sliding doors.

9. Knob LocksThe knob locks are also well-known. These days, they may be found in practically every house and apartment complex. Aside from deadbolts, they are affixed to the outside of the doors for safety and security. These door knob locks feature single or double cylinder mechanisms that lock on doors. They aren’t the safest though because hammers or other heavy items can easily break the knots. As a result, having deadbolts and doorknobs on the exact exterior is always a good idea. However, these apartment front door lock types are simple to use and convenient.

10. Latch LocksThese types of door locks are common ones that you may have seen outside. When the key is inserted into the cylinder, the internal components move, engaging the door’s bolt and latch. To lock and unlock the door, this latch slides within and out of the door frame (box). These systems frequently employ the deadbolt or spring bolt mechanisms previously mentioned.

11. Lever HandleThese types of door locks are a common choice for interior doors in homes or workplaces. They are mostly used in business contexts, such as stores or offices. This type of lock has a sizable pushdown style handle that opens the lock. Instead of a forceful twist like the knob doors, this simple lever handle gently presses. Instead of a forceful twist like knob doors, this simple lever handle simply presses. However, one should be aware that they do not provide strong security and are not suitable for primary outside doors.

12. Multipoint Lock

The multipoint lock is a unique technology that secures the side of the door with a long strip. These locks, as the name suggests, have several functions. These are relatively new on the market and are ideal for adding an additional layer of protection and safety to large interior doors.

13. Padlocks

Padlocks are one of the most common and widely used door locks. These aren’t the ones that are attached permanently. However, they are transportable. They’re available in a variety of sizes. Padlocks are divided into two types: keyed locks and combination locks. One can set up number dials to unlock the lock after someone enters the correct combination. A specific key is required to unlock a keyed lock. These are one of the simplest and quickest lock options, ideal for standard doors, office cabinets, or chambers. Furthermore, when utilizing this lock, no key is required.

14. Rim or Mortise Lock

Rim or mortise door lock types are the most preferred for big business doors, glass doors, or beautiful structures. Rim cylinder locks are attached and installed within the door, which seems to be a long metal component extended outside. Within this rim and mortise towards the edge, a box lock is commonly installed. Mortise locks are a strong option for door security. This is an excellent selection of business door locks.

15. Vending or T handle Locks

As the name implies, these locks are the most popular for vending machines. T-handle locks are a unique and easy-to-use option. To unlock a device, pull out the T-handle. As a result, the installation of new locks takes time. For ease of usage, this is the most popular form of door handle knock.

Engineering economy is calculating, estimating, and assessing the projected economic implications of options meant to achieve a certain goal. Mathematical approaches make it easier to evaluate economic options.

Engineering Economics is a critical subject for engineers. This topic helps students comprehend the need of economic information in order to be an effective manager and decision maker.

Economic concepts are utilized to make business decisions in an unpredictable and changing business environment. Economics theories cover topics such as demand, price, cost, production, competition, trade cycles, and national income, and others.

Engineering economics is concerned with the systematic assessment of the economic advantages of proposed engineering solutions. Engineering economics is concerned with technical analysis with a focus on economic factors, with the goal of helping decision-making. 

Engineering economics and conventional microeconomics are closely related. It is concerned with operational issue solving and decision making. Thus, “Engineering Economics” refers to “the parts of economics and their analytical tools that are most important to the engineer’s decision-making process.”

The seven-step methods used to support decision making are as follows: 

1. Identifying, defining, and evaluating the issue.

2. Look for options that are both prospective and realistic.

3. Including the fundamental cash flow method.

4. The decision should promote the organization’s long-term interests. 

5. Examining the economic elements of the engineering problem:

6. The preferable option is determined by the total effort. 

7. Take special care to ensure feedback is given for operational improvements.

Interest

Interest is the amount of money paid for the use of borrowed capital (from the borrower’s perspective) or the revenue generated by money loaned (from the lender’s perspective).

F= P+I

Where:

I = interest

P = principal or present worth

F = accumulated amount or future worth

 

Simple Interest

In simple interest, just the initial principle bears interest, and the amount of interest to be paid changes directly with time.

The simple interest formula is as follows:

I = Prt

The future amount is

F= P + I

F= P + Prt

Where
I = interest
P = principal, present amount, capital
F = future amount, maturity value
r = rate of simple interest expressed in decimal form
t = time in years, term in years

Ordinary and Exact Simple Interest
When the time t is specified in days, the fractional part of the year is computed with a denominator of 360, 365, or 366. The denominator in ordinary simple interest is 360, but the denominator in precise simple interest is either 365 or 366. As a result, we might argue that ordinary interest is bigger than precise interest.

Ordinary simple interest is calculated using the banker’s year.

Banker’s year

• Year = 12 months
• 1 month = 30 days (all months)
• 1 year = 360 days

The actual number of days in a year is used to calculate exact simple interest. One year consists of 365 days in the regular year and 366 days in the leap year. A leap year is one in which the month of February is 29 days long, as opposed to an ordinary year in which the month is only 28 days long. Every four years, a leap year is observed.

If d is the number of days in a month, then…
In ordinary simple interest.

• t =  d/360

In exact simple interest

• t = d/365    ( for ordinary year)
• t = d/366    (for leap year)

COMPOUND INTEREST

In compound interest, the interest earned by the principal at the conclusion of each interest period (compounding period) is added to the principal. The whole (principal + interest) will earn interest again in the following compounding period.

Elements of Compound Interest

P = principal, present amount
F = future amount, compound amount
i = interest rate per compounding period
r = nominal annual interest rate
n = total number of compounding in t years
t = number of years
m = number of compounding per year

Cash flow

The amount of money documented as revenues or disbursements in a project’s financial documents.

A cash flow diagram depicts the flow of cash as arrows on a time line scaled to the amount of the cash flow, with costs represented by downward arrows and receipts represented by upward arrows. Year-end convention costs incurred during the year are presumed to be incurred at the conclusion of the year.

Bonds

Certificates of indebtedness

Bond Value-present worth of all future amounts that are expected to be received through ownership of a bond

Discount

A discount is the difference between the future worth of a certain commodity and its present worth. There are two kinds of discounts: A trade discount is a discount offered by a seller in order to encourage trading. A cash discount is a decrease in the selling price given to entice a buyer to pay immediately.

D = F – P

Where:

D = amount of discount

F = accumulated amount or future worth

P = principal or present worth

Discount Rate – is a discount of one unit of principal per unit of time.

Fd = F – P 

P=F (1 -d) for 1 year

P= F(1-nd) for n years

The following is the link between the discount rate and the interest rate:

Where:

d = discount rate for the period involved

i = rate of interest for the same period

Annuities and Capitalized Cost

Annuity

An annuity is a series of payments that are made at regular periods. Annuities include financial activities such as installment payments, monthly leases, life insurance premiums, and monthly retirement benefits.

Elements of Annuity
A = amount of periodic payment
P = present amount of all periodic payments
F = future worth of all periodic payments after the last payment is made
i = interest rate per compounding period
n = total number of payments
m = nominal rate (see compounded interest)
t = number of years

Types of Annuities

ORDINARY ANNUITY

Payment are made at the end of each period.

The future amount F in the cash flow diagram above is the sum of payments from the end of the first period to the end of the nth period. Take note that the total number of payments is n, as is the total number of compounding periods. As a result, the number of payments and the number of compounding periods in a regular annuity are identical.

Future amount of ordinary annuity, F

Present amount of ordinary annuity, PPeriodic payment of annuity, A
Value of A if F is known:Value of A if P is known:

ANNUITY DUE

Payments are made at the beginning of each period.

F1 is the total of n ordinary annuity payments, as shown in the diagram above. F1 is one compounding period away from the future amount of annuity due at the end of the nth period. In symbol, F = F1 (1 + i).

Future amount of annuity due, F

Present amount of annuity due, P

DEFERRED ANNUITY

Payment id deferred a certain number of period.

The first payment was made at the end of the kth period, and a total of n payments were paid, as shown in the diagram. As seen in the diagram, the n payments generate a regular annuity.

Future amount of deferred annuity, F

Future amount of deferred annuity, F

PERPETUITY

Whose payment continue forever.

There is no definite future in perpetuity, thus, there is no formula for the future amount.

P is the current amount of perpetuity

From the current value of the ordinary annuity:

Arithmetic Gradient

Arithmetic gradients change by the same amount each period.

Geometric Gradient

Geometric gradients change by the same percentage each period.

DEPRECIATION

Depreciation is the decrease in the value of physical properly (except land) with the passage of time.

Book Value: the value of property as recorded in an enterprise’s accounting records.

Salvage/Resale Value: the amount earned from the sale of a property after it has been utilized.

Scrap Value: the amount of money that a piece of property would sell for if it were thrown away.

Types of Depreciation

1.Straight-Line Method

A method based on the assumption that the decrease in value is exactly proportionate to the property’s age

Straight Line Method Formula:

2.Declining Balance 

The declining balance method assumes that the yearly cost of depreciation is a set percentage (k) of the salvage value at the start of the year.Note: This method is not applicable if there is no salvage value.

3. Double Declining Balance Method

A method similar to the declining balance method in which the rate of depreciation k is substituted by 2/L.

4.Sum-of-the-Year’s-Digits (SYD)

The sum-of-the-year’s-digits method also provides for accelerated depreciation. To begin, combine all of the digits from the asset’s projected life.

Sum-of-the-years-digits method formula:

4.Sinking Fund Method

The Sinking Fund Method is based on the assumption that a sinking fund has been established in which cash will accumulate for replacement. The whole amount of depreciation that has occurred up to that point is presumed to be equal to the cumulative amount in the sinking fund at that time.

5.Units-of-Production Method

The units-of-production depreciation method depreciates assets during their useful life based on the total number of hours utilized or the total number of units to be generated by using the asset.

Units-of-Production Method Formula:

Break-Even Analysis

Calculate when revenue equals cost, or when one alternative equals another if both are dependent on the same variable.

Inflation

Inflation is defined as an increase in the price of goods and services from one year to the next, reducing money’s buying power.

Where:

FC = future cost of a commodity

PC = present cost of a commodity

f = annual inflation rate

n = number of years

In an inflationary economy, the purchasing power of money declines as costs increase:

If interest is calculated at the same time as inflation,

Where:

F = future worth of today’s present amount P

f = annual inflation rate

n = number of years

i = rate of interest

If the uninflated present value is to be calculated,

Benefits -Cost Ratio Method

Benefits-Cost Ratio-refers to a financial measurement that helps in determining the feasibility of a proposed project based on its anticipated costs and benefits. To put it another way, the ratio defines the link between the predicted added gain from a project and the expenditures associated with its completion.

The B/C ratio is defined as the ratio of the equivalent worth measure applied can be present worth, annual worth, or future worth.

Conventional B/C ratio with PWWhere: PW = present worth
                B= benefits of proposed project
                1= initial investment in the proposed projects
                O & M= operating & maintenance costs of the proposed project

Modified B/C ratio with PW:

Conventional B/C ratio with AW

Modified B/C ratio with AW:Conventional Benefits Cost Ratio with PW, Salvage value (S)

Modified Benefits Cost Ratio with PW, Salvage value (S)

Steel deck, also known as metal deck, is a galvanized steel sheet used in the construction of composite concrete floor slabs. It is also useful as a structural element in roof construction. It is used to support insulating membranes when specified as metal roof decking. Since composite metal decking has a high strength-to-weight ratio, it is ideal for use on both floors and roof construction. Other benefits of metal decking include consistent quality and proven durability, excellent fire effectiveness and lower costs.

The steel deck flooring system is a complex structure as it is a composite not only of concrete but also of a large number of steel sheets used to form the top surface. The system is used in modern buildings because it offers many advantages over other types of floors such as wood or masonry.

The main advantage of using this kind of flooring system is that it can be easily maintained. Unlike other materials which may require frequent replacement due to their natural deterioration, over time. In addition, this type provides excellent acoustic properties due to its smoothness and cleanliness, which makes your home more comfortable than ever before!

The main part of the steel deck flooring system is the steel deck board. This board is made of solid. It is made from hot rolled steel and is used as a structural platform for concrete.

Column and beam formwork installation: This assists the structural member in gaining sufficient strength to carry its own load as well as the load of other members.

In this illustration, the steel deck is connected to the beam reinforcements. It is laid along the short span of the slab as the steel deck flooring acts as a one-way slab.

Separate rebar is welded to the steel deck to fix the deck in place and ensure a better connection between the steel deck and the supporting beam.

Top bars are installed at the top sections of the slab to minimize concrete cracks due to temperature changes and shrinkage of concrete.

Since the steel deck can only withstand bending forces at the slab’s bottom midspan, extra bars are installed at the supporting beams to withstand negative bending moments developed near the support.

Monolithic pouring of the beam and slab is recommended to eliminate cold joints in concrete for better structural integrity of the structure.

Also Read:

• Types of Beam
• Types of Footings
• Flat Slab
• Concrete Stairs Reinforcement Details
• Different Types of Lintels

Steel Decking Advantage and Disadvantage

Steel decking is a popular choice for construction projects due to its numerous advantages. However, it also has some disadvantages that should be considered.

Advantages

1. For slab casting, it is lightweight and does not require any formwork or support props.

Wet concrete casting in traditional construction requires a supporting structure because wet concrete cannot support its own weight with just reinforced steel. The support is assembled and disassembled both before and after the casting, which extends the overall project timeline.

2. This reduces the amount of reinforcing steel by 20% because the deck profile itself largely contributes to the tensile reinforcing property. 

The floor deck serves as a structural component of the building and transfers horizontal forces similarly to the reinforced steel. As a result, less reinforced steel is needed. Additionally, the structure’s weight is decreased.

3. It acts as a permanent shuttering and composite member.

Instead of using temporary shuttering for the concrete casting, decks are used as permanent shuttering inside the structure, making the floor a composite structure of concrete with a stronger yield strength for the entire structure.

4. There is no need for major reinforcement unless the design parameters require it. 

The deck as a whole plane provides a stronger connection between the purlins and beams, providing greater structural strength than just major reinforced steel.

5. Slab thickness reductions result in lighter slabs and lower foundation loads, resulting in less material. 

The floor thickness in concrete casting is difficult to regulate and frequently much thicker than in floor casting with decks. The concrete floors self-weight even weakens the floor’s overall yield strength.

5. Consumption and thus cost savings 

Casting a floor with decks requires less cement and reinforced steel, which covers deck costs and more.

6.The deck can be utilized as a work surface while building

Decks keep workers safer during construction than hanging between reinforced steel and shuttering. This improves worker safety.

7. Getting the construction done faster will save time and money. 

Floor decking enables construction without shuttering and additional supports during assembly and disassembly, greatly reducing the time required for the entire project. Eventually, labor costs will decrease.

8.Metal decks can also be used in concrete roofing and cladding sheets.

In addition to decks for floors, there are also decks for roofing and wall cladding. They provide greater structural strength for the building and take less time to install and construct.

Disadvantages

1.Experienced construction teams are required.

Despite the fact that floor decking sheets make construction easier in the end. Workers are still unfamiliar with this type of construction method. As a result, workers need some time to become familiar with the decks.

2. Some countries require imports, and some areas are only available in certain areas. 

You can find local suppliers anywhere in the world, unlike with traditional reinforced steel bars. Some countries must import floor decking because they lack local steel manufacturers or since the manufacturers are not developed enough to produce it.

3. Difference in construction timeline

The floor decking reduces the overall project duration, which may necessitate rescheduling of additional projects like the frame work.

4. Higher initial cost

Although a steel-framed building is much more affordable than a wood-framed building, steel structures last much longer than wooden structures, which only last for 10-15 years. Floor decking may be more economical for long-lasting structures.

ELEVATED WATER STORAGE TANK

 Water is required for a variety of activities in the household, including cooking, cleaning, bathing, washing clothes and utensils, and so on. It is simply a strong  water supply system that can make water available at various points and for various applications throughout a house.

Elevated water tank systems will be common in large-scale communities. This kind of water storage keeps the water above ground. The structure is first built with beams and columns, and then the water tank is built on the bare frame structure (beams and columns). Since the water is stored above ground, its distribution is entirely dependent on gravitational force.

Elevated water storage tanks are used to store potable drinking water within a specific area or community. Elevated tanks allow the natural force of gravity to produce consistent water pressure throughout a system. Elevated water storage tanks can be designed using a wide range of shapes, sizes, and materials depending on the intended application and requirements of the distribution area.

Plumbing System for Elevated Water Tank

Gi pipe threading– to provide a more effective seal, especially for the pipes transporting liquids.

Gate valve: the most common type of valve in water supply systems is a gate valve. It is a linear-motion isolation valve that can either stop or allow flow. Gate valves are used to isolate specific sections of the water supply system during maintenance, repair, and new installation, as well as to reroute water flow throughout the piping system.

Elbow: it provides flexibility to change the pipe’s direction.

Adaptor: a fitting that allows two pipes to be connected together. 

Flange with flange adaptor: to connect different kinds of pipe and connect to GI and HDPE.

Drain pipe:  a drain pipe must be installed to drain the water in the tank.

Supply pipe: a pipe that distributes water from a tank to different locations.

Over flow pipe:  overflow pipes are installed on tanks to control the flow of extra liquid into the tank and divert it to a lower level in the event of an overfill situation.

Riser pipe: pipe carrying water from the source.

Components of Elevated Storage Tanks

Inlet and Outlet Pipes

Elevated water storage tanks typically have a common inlet and outlet pipe, whereas above-ground storage tanks can have either a common or separate inlet or outlet pipe. The purpose of these pipes is to bring water into the tank and allow it to exit. The purpose of having separate inlet and outlet piping configurations is to aid in water circulation within the tank. The common pipe (known as a riser) for an elevated water storage tanks typically runs up the center of the support structure that holds the tank. The inlet and outlet piping of an above-ground storage tank typically enter the tank through the bottom. In the separate inlet/outlet configuration, the inlet and outlet connections are typically located at opposite ends of the tank.

Overflow Pipe

An overflow pipe is included with each kind of tank. It is intended to allow water to exit the  tank and enter the atmosphere if the water-level controls fail. They are typically designed to discharge into a storage tank and should never be connected directly to a sewer or storm drain. They should be screened or have a weighted flap to prevent living creatures from entering the pipe and should have an adequate air gap separation from the area into which they discharge. 

Drain Connection

Regular inspections of all tanks are required. While some inspections can take place while the tank is still full of  water, it is more common to drain a tank for inspection, cleaning, and repairs. Water in a tank can be reduced by turning off the pumps that fill it. They can, however, only be lowered to the height of the outlet pipe, and a tank should never be completely drained while in service. Once the water has been lowered as far as it can while still in service, a separate drain pipe can be opened to drain the remaining water.

Monitoring Devices

Monitoring devices are commonly installed in water storage tanks as well as other water distribution facilities. These monitoring devices are discussed in greater detail in another chapter. However, they will be briefly discussed here as well. The water level is one of the most important things to keep an eye on in storage tanks. Therefore, the majority have either a physical site gauge mounted on the tank’s exterior or level sensors that can send tank level information to distant locations. These devices frequently include high and low water level alarms.

Valves

To isolate a tank from the distribution system, a valve must be installed along the tank’s inlet/outlet piping. This valve can then be closed to disable the tank for maintenance and repairs. An altitude valve is a valve that is sometimes installed in tanks. This valve is designed to close when the tank begins to overflow.

Vents

Air ventilation is typically provided at the tops of tanks to allow air to escape as the tank fills and to allow air to enter as the tank level drops. These air vents must be large enough to keep the tank from collapsing and properly screened with a mesh size of at least 14″.

Access Hatches

Access to the inside of a tank must also be provided. On the top of storage tanks, there are at least one and sometimes several access hatches. These allow personnel to enter the tank for maintenance and inspection. To prevent surface water runoff from entering the tank, these hatches must be properly constructed with rims under the cover. There are also manways at the tank’s bottom for access when a tank has been drained and removed from service for maintenance and inspection.

Ladders

Access to tank tops and inside tanks must be provided. Ladders are commonly used to gain access. Spiral staircases are used instead of ladders in some above-ground water storage tanks.

 Elevated water storage tanks are typically outfitted with three different ladders.

• The first one runs up the leg of the tower from the ground to the balcony around the  tank.
• The second ladder leads from the balcony to the top of the tank roof.
• The third ladder provides inside access by running along the inside of the tank. Outside ladders should be installed six to eight feet off the ground or have a locked metal shield around the bottom to prevent unauthorized access.

Pipe Sizing 

Correct pipe sizing ensures adequate flow rates at appliances while avoiding problems caused by over- and under-sizing.

Oversizing will imply:

• Excessive and unnecessary installation costs;
• Delay in getting hot  water from outlets;
• Higher heat losses from hot water distribution pipes

Undersizing may lead to:

• Inadequate delivery from outlets, and possibly no delivery at some outlets when used concurrently;
• Some temperature and pressure variations at outlets, particularly showers and other mixers;
• A slight increase in noise levels.

Parts of Water Distribution System

1. Service Pipe

The pipe that connects the building’s distribution system to the water main or another source of potable water supply. 

2. Supply Pipe/Distribution Pipe
A pipe within a structure or on the premises that transports water from the water service pipe to the point of use.

3. Riser
A water supply that extends one story or more in order to deliver water to branches or a group of fixtures. 

4. Fixture Branch

The water supply pipe that connects the fixture supply pipe to the water distributing pipe. 

5. Fixture Supply

A pipe that connects the fixture to the fixture branch.

Read More: Water Storage Tank | Types of Vents | Types of Pipes | Types of Fitting in Plumbing

Indirect System (Water Distribution of Cold Water Supply)

A water distribution system is a section of the water supply network that consists of components that transport potable water from a centralized treatment facility or wells to consumers to meet their needs for household, commercial, industrial, and firefighting purposes.

When the mains supply is insufficient to supply water to a significant number of properties during peak hours, indirect cold water systems are used. By using indirect cold water systems, users are putting less pressure on the supply of mains water. Due to the fact that they supply both hot and cold services, indirect cold water systems need more pipework and larger storage. If you have an indirect cold water supply, only the taps used for drinking water and food preparation will draw water from the main supply; all other taps will draw water from the storage cistern. Storage water is used in order to heat, bathe, and flush the toilet. Because there is less pressure on indirect supplies, they wear out faster than direct supplies. In addition to being quieter, indirect supplies provide some storage retention in the event that your main cold water supply is cut off. 

Indirect System of Cold Water Supply

The indirect cold water supply system has only one drinking water outlet, which is located at the sink. The cold water storage cistern in the roof space has a minimum capacity of 230 liters. Aside from its normal supply function, it also serves as an adequate emergency storage in the event of a water main failure. The system is more expensive to install and needs more pipework than the direct system, but all cistern-supplied outlets experience the same pressure.

The most common type of water supply system in modern homes is an indirect system.  Water enters the house through the rising main (the main pipe from which water enters the house), which is then branched off into the kitchen sink and storage tank, which are located either underground or overhead. Potable water only comes directly from municipal mains into the kitchen sink. The storage  tank provides water to all of the other appliances. The storage tank is kept at a sufficient height to allow water to fall into fixtures via gravity at a sufficient pressure.

Pressure of water of Indirect Water Supply System

The water storage tank must be placed at a specific height in order to obtain sufficient water pressure; this is not always possible, and thus users on the upper floors suffer from low water pressure, causing functionalities such as showering, flushing, and so on to perform poorly.

Quality of water in Indirect Water Supply System

The process of storing water in tanks and supplying it to appliances has an impact on the quality of the water.

Distribution of Pipes of Indirect Water Supply System

Water enters the house through the main supply pipe and is routed to the kitchen sink and either an overhead or underground water storage tank. All other fixtures are then supplied with water from the storage tank.

Maintenance

Tanks, whether they are above ground or underground with pumps, need to be cleaned, maintained, and protected from UV rays on a regular basis.

Water Supply

When water is stored in a storage tank, it can be used at any time of day, but a specific storage capacity is required. Only that fixture’s water supply is interrupted if a pipe is damaged. The tank supplies water to the rest room fixtures.

Wastage & Leakages in the Water Supply Systems

• Minimal water wastage. 
• The possibility of water leakage from a water storage tank

Capacity of Pumps at Source & Economy

• There is a significant additional cost for pipes and tanks. 
• Since water will only be supplied below ground, moderate pressure will do.

During Damage in Water Supply Systems

• If a pipe in the indirect water supply system is damaged, only that fixture’s water supply is interrupted, the remaining fixtures continue to receive an uninterrupted water supply from the tank.

Designing the reinforcement layout for a box culvert involves determining the arrangement and spacing of  reinforcement bars to ensure the structural integrity and load-bearing capacity of the culvert.

What is culvert?

A culvert is a tunnel that carries a stream beneath a roadway or railway. For traffic to pass through, a culvert can act as a bridge. They are usually found in natural water flows and are used as bridges or as current flow controllers. 

Culverts are installed beneath roads and highways to enable river crossings since road embankments cannot be permitted to block water flow. The culvert is helpful for regulating water flow on a road.

What is box culvert?

Box culverts are appropriate for crossing a stream with restricted flow beneath a road or railway bridge with high embankments because they are made up of two horizontal and two vertical  slabs erected monolithically. Up to a span of 4 m, reinforced concrete rigid frame box culverts with square or rectangular apertures are employed. The vent’s height is usually not more than 3 meters.

Due to their rigidity and monolithic action, box culverts are cost-effective, and they don’t require separate foundations because the bottom slab acts as a raft slab, resting directly on the earth. Smaller discharges are handled by single-celled box culverts, whereas larger discharges are handled by multicelled box culverts. The carriageway and kerbs should be long enough for the barrel of the box culvert to accommodate them.

One of the most widely used culvert designs is the box culvert. Box culverts have a concrete bottom, which allows water to flow freely (although other materials might be utilized). Reinforced concrete is used to construct box culverts (RCC). When water needs to change direction or a substantial flow of water is predicted, some box culverts can be constructed utilizing composite construction.

Box culverts can also be built so that the roadway surface is also the top of the culvert. The most difficult aspect of constructing these types of culverts is that they require a dry area to be installed, so dewatering or water diversion will be required to finish the installation.

Box Culvert Reinforcement Layout

Top Slab

• It is the structural component that permits vehicles to move. It’s a slab made of reinforced concrete. 
• It is the structural component that enables vehicles to move. It’s a concrete slab with reinforcement. To complete the road, asphalt is usually laid on top of the  slab.
• The top slab is designed for bending and shear forces generated by applied loads.

Bottom Slab

• It serves as the box culvert’s base and is intended to withstand bending and shear pressures caused by the imposed loads.

Side Walls

• They support the top slab’s vertical loads as well as bending moments.

Advantages of Box Culvert

• The box culvert is a basic structure with a strong frame.
• It’s ideal for non-perennial streams with shallow brush and weak soil.
• The bottom slab of a box culvert reduces soil pressure.
• Due to their stiffness and monolithic action, box culverts are cost-effective, and they don’t require separate foundations.
• It’s used when the foundations are particularly weak.

Tips for Culvert Installation and Selection

Consider the following factors when selecting the right type of culvert for your project:

• To minimize erosion concerns, the culvert must be installed at the proper elevation and grade.
• Maintaining closed culverts can be difficult and will get more difficult as time passes. Maintenance costs should be considered in the decision-making process.
• The culvert’s inlet and outlet must be properly planned and built. Mitered ends are the most efficient way to finish a culvert. Mitered ends will facilitate the flow process by allowing for the proper flow.
• Flared culvert outlet ends can help to reduce or eliminate scouring.
• To avoid erosion at the culvert outlet, it is suggested that rip-rap or similar structures be installed.
• If necessary, backfill the culvert on the sides, bottom, and top with the appropriate aggregate material. The correct aggregate will keep the culvert from eroding and also keep it safe.
• Culverts should be installed in natural draws on all roadways, if at all practicable.
• Consider how much traffic will pass through the culvert and how deep it will be. If culverts aren’t planned correctly, they can collapse.
• Before making the right decision, the cost of installation and the resources available should always be considered.

Read Also:

• Types of Culvert
• Bridges- Components and Classification
• Concrete Stairs Reinforcement Details
• Steel Deck Installation and Construction
• Types of Column Used in Construction

Other Things to Consider When Installing Culverts

Once you’ve decided on the type of culvert to use, double-check that all environmental permits are current. Verify that all NPDES standards have been met, as well as that the appropriate equipment is available to build the culvert, backfill it, and compact the soil as per engineering specifications.

WHAT IS REBAR?

 Rebar is a type of  reinforcing bar that is used to strengthen the tensile strength of concrete and is generally composed of steel. As we all know, concrete is reasonably strong in compression but extremely weak in tension. The overall performance of concrete structures under loaded situations is improved by adding reinforcement. In this article, we’ll go through the many types of rebar that are used in steel reinforcement.

Types of Steel Reinforcement Bars

The following are the most common types of steel bars used in construction:

1.MILD STEEL BAR

The surface of the mild steel bars is plain and circular in shape. They come in different sizes, ranging from 6 mm to 50 mm. They are used in concrete for a variety of functions, including dowels at expansion joints where bars must move in a metal or paper sleeve, contraction joints in highways and runways, and column spirals. They are easy to cut and bend without causing damage. Mild steel bar is not suggested for structural constructions such as bridges and other large structures owing to poor bonding between concrete and steel, slippage, and strength. Steel that exceeds the minimum ultimate tensile strength of 550 n/mm2 and 10000 N/mm2 is classified as medium-tensile steel or high-tensile steel.

Mild steel is divided into two grades: Grade I and Grade II. The mechanical characteristics of mild steel bars are as follows:

2. DEFORMED STEEL BAR

The surface of deformed steel bars has ribs, lugs, and other deformations that strengthen the binding strength between steel and concrete. 

Tensile, yield, and bond strength are all high in deformed bars. Hooks are not required at the ends of deformed bars since their bond strength is higher than that of regular mild steel bars.

Types of Deformed Steel Bars

There are two types of rebar for deformed steel bars.

A. TMT Bars (Thermo Mechanically Treated Bars)

TMT is a sophisticated technique that involves quenching red-hot rebars with a sequence of water jets, resulting in a hardened outer layer surface enclosing a softer core. The TMT bar is the most recent innovation in the steel industry. These types of rebar are commonly used as reinforcement in the construction of buildings, roads, bridges, and other construction projects.

Characteristics of TMT Bars

• Better ductility and malleability
• High yield strength and toughness
• More bonding strength
• Earthquake resistance
• Corrosion resistance
• High thermal resistance
• Economical and safe in use
• No loss in strength at welded joints
• Ordinary electrodes used for welding the joints

B. Cold Twisted Bar

Cold twisted bars (CTD) are high-strength deformed bars (HSD) whose quality is enhanced by different cold working procedures (stretching and twisting). CTD bars have a yield stress that is 50% higher than conventional mild steel bars. These rebars come in diameters ranging from 4mm to 50mm. This type of rebar generates higher operating stresses while utilizing less steel. Due to cold twisting, there is surface stress and visible fissures, which results in decreased ductility, increased corrosion rate, and a drop in elongation percent of 24 to 13 percent. Buildings, highways, bridges, water-retaining structures, precast  concrete, and other concrete constructions frequently use these bars as reinforcement.

Characteristics of Cold twisted bar

• Low carbon content- Lower carbon content makes it ductile.
• Welding capabilities-Due to the decreased carbon value, welding is feasible.
• Less  steel consumption- Construction with these bars consumes 30-40% less steel compared to other types of rebars.
• Economical- As it consume less steel it is economical.
• Better functional aspects and structural safety.
• High tensile strength- CTD bars possess high tensile strength

3. Carbon Steel Bar

Due to its carbon color, this is the most popular variety of carbon steel rebar, also known as a black bar. One notable disadvantage is that it corrodes quickly, making it unsuitable for use in high-humidity environments or constructions that are constantly exposed to water. Carbon steel rebars, on the other hand, are an excellent choice for all other sorts of constructions.

4. Epoxy Coated Rebar

Epoxy coated rebar, often known as green rebar, is utilized in concrete that is exposed to corrosive environments.

To strengthen the concrete and prevent it from corrosion, epoxy-coated rebar or corrosion-resistant rebar is used instead of traditional reinforcing bars. To ensure corrosion resistance, the epoxy coating is added to the steel at a factory prior to shipping. Corrosive concrete can benefit from the use of epoxy-coated steel reinforcing bars (rebar). Exposure to deicing salts or seawater is one example. This bar is suitable for usage in maritime construction, bridge infrastructure, buildings, and roads, etc.

5. Stainless steel rebars

These types of rebar are some of the best types of rebar for applications requiring strong corrosion resistance or where restoration is difficult and expensive. However, epoxy-coated rebar is at least eight times more expensive. Stainless steel rebars provide a number of benefits. 

• Extremely long-lasting and durable
• Black bars are 1500 times more corrosive than white bars.
• There’s no need to maintain it. 
• Will not be harmed during transit or installation.

6. Galvanized Rebars

A protective covering of zinc metal is applied to this rebar. The corrosion resistance of galvanized rebars is 40 times that of carbon steel rebars. They are, nevertheless, more expensive than black bars. These bars are ideal for construction that will be exposed to heavy levels of moisture and humidity.

7. European Rebars

These rebars are often made of manganese, which makes them easily flexible. European rebars are not suited for use in locations prone to extreme weather and natural disasters like tornadoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes.

8. Glass-Fiber –Reinforced-Polymer Rebars (GFRP)

Fiberglass rebars are also known as fiberglass-reinforced polymer rebars. Carbon fiber is commonly used. GFRP has a number of benefits, including:

• It will never corrode due to exposure to salts or other environmental factors. 
• The tensile strength of these bars is greater than that of steel.
• Non-conductive electrical properties and thermal insulator capabilities outperform steel rebar.
• Due to its lighter weight, it saves money on material handling and transportation.

9. Welded Wire Fabric

Carbon steel wires are placed at 90 degree angles and welded at all intersections to create this type of 
 rebar. The design will resemble a square grid or mesh. WWF is perfect for well-compacted floor slabs, sidewalks, highways, culverts, small canals, runway pavements, and concrete pads.

BEAM REINFORCEMENT DETAIL

Detailing is among the most important aspects of any building. The engineer should carefully analyze and install the various RCC components.

To ensure a faultless building process, proper detailing of reinforcements with correct designs is required at the construction site. Typically, these designs include a timetable for bar bending. The bar bending schedule specifies the length and number of bends, as well as their position and form. The detailing of beams is normally related to the following:

• Bar size and number (or spacing)
• Bar lap and curtailment (or bending)
• Expansion of bar length
• Chair bars and spacers
• The reinforcement has a clear cover. 

The  steel used in beams is divided into several groups depending on the relevant objectives: 

1. At the compression and tension faces, there is longitudinal reinforcement. 

2.Vertical stirrups and/or bent-up longitudinal bars can be used as shear reinforcements. 

• When a beam’s web depth reaches 750 mm, side face reinforcement is added to the beam’s web.
• Distribute at least 0.1 percent of the web area evenly on two faces, separated by no more than 300 mm or the web thickness, whichever is less.

According to ACI 318M-14, spacing of transverse reinforcement (stirrups) in location of the spliced rebar must not exceed the lesser of D/4 and 100mm where D is the depth of the beam.

Length of extra bars and splice.

Proper splicing of Longitudinal Rebars

The different types of lintels used in building construction will be covered in this article. Lintels can only be classified based on the materials used in their construction.

What is lintel?

A lintel is a structural component that holds across openings in a residential building such as  windows,  doors, and so on to support the weight from the structure above, and the ends of this beam are placed into the wall such that the width of the lintel beam and the width of the wall are equal.

The main function of the lintel beam is to carry loads from above the wall and transmit these loads to the side walls.  These beams were constructed using various materials and have a rectangular plan and section.

Lintel Purpose

The lintel beam serves the following functions: 

• These beams are used to support the walls above openings such as windows, doors, and other openings.
• These beams are provided as protection for the windows and doors. 
• The purpose of installing these beams is to withstand the loads imposed by the bricks or blocks above, as well as to transfer the load to the side walls.
• The lintel beam is also used as a decorative architectural component on occasion. 

Types of Lintels

Lintels can be classified based on two classifications:

a) Span
b) Material

A. Classification Based On Span

• Cut lintel or lintel beam
• Lintel banding or continuous lintel 

1.Cut lintel or lintel beam 

Only the areas above openings are provided with this kind of lintel beam. These lintel beams can be cast in place or precast. Bearings are provided to ensure that the load is properly transferred to the frames of the windows and doors. 
These lintels are very common in load-bearing structures. The following minimums define the bearing’s width:

1.10 cm
2. The height of the lintel beam 
3. 1/10th to 1/12th of the lintel’s span 

 2. Lintel banding or continuous lintel 

The building’s entire span is supported by this lintel. It functions similarly to another tie beam, connecting all of the structure’s columns. It is primarily constructed of reinforced cement concrete. These lintels are appropriate for use in 

• Structures with frames 
• Structures on expansive soils. 
• Earthquake-prone areas

B. Classification Based On Materials

Various materials are used for lintel construction, depending on the cost and availability of materials. Lintels are classified into the following categories based on their development elements:

• Brick Lintels
• Precast lintels
• Reinforced Brick Lintels
• Reinforced Concrete Lintels
• Steel Lintels
• Stone Lintels
• Timber Lintels

 Brick Lintels

Brick lintels are made of hard, well-burned first-class brick. It can be built with coursed bricks laid horizontally over openings, bricks on edge, or bricks on their ends. 
Brick lintels are not structurally strong. The brick lintel is constructed over a temporary wooden center and has a drop that depends on the span. 
When a wall opening is small (less than 1 m.) and has light loads, this type of lintel is used. 
Their depths range from 10 cm to 20 cm depending on the span, and at the end joints, bricks with mortar-filled frogs provide more shear resistance.

Advantages of Brick Lintel

• It is the most cost-effective type of lintel.
• It is ideal for short distances.
• Since the lintel and masonry are both made of the same material, their thermal coefficients are the same. Thus, it is possible to prevent cracks brought on by thermal stresses.

Disadvantages of Brick Lintel

• Bricks are not particularly strong when used as a lintel. 
• Bricks are brittle under tension. 
•  Brick lintels can only support light loads. 
• It is not appropriate for long distances. 
• Formworks are required to hold the bricks in place during construction. 
• A curing period of at least 2 to 3 weeks is necessary.

Also Read:

• Types of wood joints and their uses
• Structural Member
• Box Culvert Reinforcement Layout
• Steel Deck Installation and Construction
• Types of Beam

Precast Lintel

Precast  concrete lintels are inexpensive and provide strong support for structures such as masonry over door and window openings. 
Precast lintels are available in a variety of sizes and are used in the construction of residential and commercial buildings.

Reinforced Brick Lintels

Brick lintels have issues with heavy loads and longer spans. These can be overcome by employing reinforcement bars. 

The reinforced brick lintels range in depth from 10 cm to 15 cm. 
The placement of the bricks should allow for the insertion of mild steel reinforcement bars by leaving enough space lengthwise between the adjacent bricks. 

The gaps are filled in with cement mortar, and every third vertical joint has a vertical stirrup with a 6 mm diameter, with the main reinforcement at the bottom.

Reinforced Concrete Lintels

Due to their strength, rigidity, fire resistance, affordability, and ease of construction, reinforced concrete lintels are now frequently used to span openings for doors, windows, and other structural openings. They are appropriate for all loads and spans. The width is the same as the wall’s width, and the depth is determined by the span’s length and the amount of loading. 
At the ends of the reinforced cement concrete lintel, where the main reinforcement is located, half of these bars are crank-mounted. To protect the structure from transverse shear, shear stirrups are used.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Lintels

• It meets all design requirements for tension, compression, shear, and deflection better than any other lintel. 
• Precast RCC lintels can help to accelerate the construction process. 
• It can be provided for long periods of time. 
• It is reasonably priced for the design requirements it fulfills. 
• It is simple to build.

Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete Lintels

• Formworks are required to support the concrete during the construction process if it is cast on-site, and a minimum curing period of 28 days is required. 

Steel Lintels

When the superimposed loads are heavy and the apertures are large, they are used. These are built of rolled steel joists or channel sections. Depending on the requirements, designers can employ a single portion or a combination of portions. 

When utilized individually, the steel joist will either be embedded in concrete or clad with stone facing to maintain the width of the wall as is. Tube separators keep several units in place when they are positioned next to each other.

Advantages of Steel Lintel

• It is suitable for a long span, and because steel is lightweight, it is easy to handle and transport. 
• Steel is a versatile material that can be formed into any shape. 
• Steel that has been prefabricated expedites the construction process. 
• There is no need for curing or formwork.

Disadvantages of Steel Lintel

• It is prone to corrosion. 
• The risk of fire exists.

Stone Lintels

Lintels made of stone are often used. These types  lintels are used where there are stones available near the construction site. Stone lintels are employed in architectural masonry types of construction because they may provide the building with incredible strength and look. The stone sizes are designed to meet the needs. The slabs of stones of suitable length are flaws in the combining of many pieces are used to construct these stone lintels.

Advantages of Stone Lintel

• It has an aesthetically pleasing and elegant appearance.
• No formwork or curing is required. 
• It is very inexpensive if the stones are locally available.
• It is ideal for short distances.

Disadvantages of Stone Lintel

• It has a very low tension. 
• It cannot be used over long spans.
• It is not resistant to vibrations, earthquakes, or shock waves
• It may be expensive if it is not available locally. 

Timber Lintel

Timber or  wooden lintels are the oldest types of lintels and are popularly used in hilly regions where timber is not available locally, but they are being replaced by several modern techniques. 

Timber lintel beams are more expensive, less durable, and more prone to fire, and they are secured with  steel bolts. 

If the opening length is greater than two, it is built by joining more than two wooden pieces. 
It is made up of two or more wooden pieces that are separated from one another by wooden packing pieces and occasionally by the addition of mild steel plates to the tops of the pieces.

Advantages of Timber Lintel

• It is simple to build. 
• Suitable for temporary structures 
• Formwork is not required. 
• There is no need for a curing period.

Disadvantages of Timber Lintel

• If wood is not properly maintained, it will decay. 
• It is significantly more expensive than the alternatives available. 
• It is prone to fire. 
• Wood is not strong enough to withstand the lintel’s tensions, compression, and shear forces. 
• These lintels are not used in permanent structures.