Causes of Cracks in Concrete and How to Prevent Cracks in Concrete?
What Is Concrete Crack?
Cracking lines on the concrete’s surface may be found along which it splits without breaking apart. These lines are known as concrete cracks.
Causes of Cracks in Concrete
Cracking is one of the most common problems in concrete and should be avoided at all costs. The following are some of the causes of concrete cracking:
2. Shrinkage One of the most common causes of cracking in hardened concrete is shrinkage. During drying shrinkage, the volume of concrete gradually decreases, and if the component is restrained against free movement, tensile stresses develop, causing cracks.
2. Temperature Changes Concrete cracks can also appear as a result of weathering processes like freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, as well as heating and cooling. Concrete cracks can develop as a result of water freezing or moisture in the concrete paste. The movement of water to freezing sites, as well as the hydraulic pressure generated by the growth of ice crystals, cause freezing damage in hardened concrete.
3. Poor Construction Practices Cracked concrete can sometimes be the result of poor construction practices. The following are some of the poor on-site practices that may cause the concrete to crack:
POOR PRACTICE
EFFECT OF PRACTICE
FACTOR CAUSING CRACKING
Adding water to concrete to improve its workability
Reduces the strength of the concrete Improves settlement
Drying shrinkage and plastic settlement cracking have increased.
Increasing cement content to compensate for a decrease in strength caused by the addition of water.
Increases the temperature difference between the structure’s interior and exterior sections. Increases the volume of cement paste
Dry shrinkage has increased. Thermal stresses
Inadequate curing
Lack of hydration in concrete Reduce your strength.
Increased shrinkage at a time when the concrete’s strength is low
Inadequate consolidation and incorrect placement of construction joints, as well as a lack of support forms
Improves settlement Inadequate setting support Joints open high-stress points
Concrete cracks due to loads before it has developed enough strength to support itself.
4. Chemical Reaction Concrete cracks can be caused by harmful chemical reactions. The chemical reactions could be caused by the materials used to make concrete or by materials that come into contact with the concrete when it has hardened and matured properly.
Cracks in concrete can form over time as a result of slowly developing expansive reactions between active silica aggregates and alkalies derived from the hydration of cement, admixtures, or external sources.
Reaction causes the formation of a swelling gel, which tends to draw water from those other parts of the concrete. This causes local expansion and tensile stresses, and mass eventually results in the structure’s complete deterioration.
5. Errors in Design and Detailing Excessive cracking may be caused by design and detailing errors, such as insufficient reinforcement, improper foundation design, improper material selection, inadequate precast members and slabs, and inadequate contraction joints, among other things.
6. Construction Overloads and Early Formwork Removal
When the formwork is removed earlier in the construction process, the load that is induced in the structure during that time can also cause cracking.
7. Concrete Corrosion Steel corrosion produces a large amount of iron oxides and hydroxides, which have a much larger volume than metallic iron. As a result, the volume increases, and cracks appear.
8. Creep and Elastic Deformation The different parts of the building, including the walls, columns, and beams .When loaded, a slab or other structure deforms elastically. The type of construction materials used, such as bricks, cement concrete blocks, etc., affect how concrete deforms. Cracking develops from this unusual concrete deformation.
How to Prevent Cracks in Concrete?
Concrete can develop cracks in a variety of ways. They are as follows:
The concrete structure must be properly cured. Gunny bags are used to maintain moisture for a longer period of time.
Addition of water in accordance with the concrete’s needs and the cement-to-water ratio. Excess water may cause concrete damage.
Using high-quality materials and preparing concrete in accordance with the right mix design
When placing concrete, the appropriate vibration should be used.
If concrete is to be laid from a height, it must be placed properly and at a height of no greater than 1 m.
Concrete can be mixed with shrinkage-reducing admixtures to prevent the development of cracks
Providing adequate control joints in concrete.
Avoid adding calcium chloride admixtures to the concrete mix
Materials Used to Repair Concrete Cracks
Concrete cracks can be repaired using a range of materials. They are as follows:
Cement mortar
Cement slurry
Epoxy resins
Polymer Modified Cementitious Products (PMCC), such as acrylics, vinyl diene dichloride (PVDD), polyvinyl acetate (PVAC), and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR).
Pervious concrete is a type of concrete that consists of cement, coarse aggregates, water, and, if required, admixtures and other cementitious materials (such as silica fume, fly ash, and so on). In this type of concrete, fine aggregates are not typically used in the concrete matrix. As a result, the void content is greater, allowing water to flow through its body.
Pervious concrete is similar to regular paving material except that it contains 15% to 35% open space. The majority of standard concrete has less than 2% open space. This makes it much easier to drain water than a regular solid concrete slab.
It is used for paving purposes only, not for structural purposes like footings and foundations. This is due to the fact that all of those open voids reduce the compressive strength of the concrete. However, it is still strong enough to be used as pavement.
Pervious concrete can absorb storm water at a rate of 3 to 8 gallons of water per minute per square foot of surface area. This is significantly higher than blacktop or solid concrete, and it exceeds the flow rate required to prevent heavy rain runoff. It can be extremely helpful in areas prone to flooding or with poor drainage.
Rainwater draining through the concrete can either seep into the soil surface or be diverted away with pipes or gravel. Since the pavement serves as a water collection area, it helps reduce the amount of polluted runoff that typically happens when impervious pavements, such as tar or concrete-covered roads, are used.
When water passes through it, it acts as a filter. Aerobic bacteria inside the voids of the pavement help break down pollutants and chemicals as the water moves through the cell structure of the pavement. This method can help in the purification of water before it enters the soil.
Pervious Concrete Installation
Usually, ready-mix trucks are used to transport pervious concrete to project locations. The concrete must first be leveled with a vibratory screed before being compacted with a heavy steel roller to increase strength.
Due to the low water content, the curing process is complicated. Pervious concrete must be misted with water after placement, covered with plastic, and kept damp for at least seven days to allow for adequate hydration. This allows pervious concrete to achieve the desired strength.
What is Pervious Concrete Used For?
Pervious concrete has several applications, the most common of which is for pavement. Since it is weaker than regular concrete, it is generally not used for structural applications.
Due to its excellent drainage capabilities, pervious concrete is primarily used as a road construction material. It’s extremely high number of pores and voids allows water to drain right through it, which is a massive advantage for a road, driveway, or parking lot. Because water can drain through the road surface, you don’t have to spend as much on expensive storm-water management systems, drains, and pipes.
Pervious concrete is also known as porous or permeable concrete. Porous refers to the large number of pores that run through it, while permeable refers to its ability to permeate (drain) water.
Pervious concrete is an excellent solution for addressing environmental problems caused by pollution from roadways. Storm water runoff is reduced and groundwater levels can be replenished naturally by allowing storm water to seep into the ground.
By eliminating retention ponds, drains, pipes, and other storm-water management systems, pervious concrete paved roads allow for more efficient land use.
Hydraulic systems (where permeability is accepted)
Decks for swimming pools
Pavement edge drains and a tree grate on the sidewalk
Advantages of Pervious Concrete
This section will provide an overview of the advantages of using pervious concrete.
Water and air can flow at a rate of 3–8 gallons per square foot per minute through the slab.
Combines paving and drainage, necessitating less storm-water management.
Improves land use by eliminating the need for storm-water runoff management
Aids in replenishing underground water aquifers.
Encourages natural filtration, lowering water pollution caused by hydrocarbons and other contaminants.
Reduces the harmful effects of urban heat islands.
Lowering long-term maintenance costs.
Since sloped drainage is not required, flat roads and parking lots can be constructed.
Disadvantages of Pervious Concrete
Despite the fact that pervious concrete is a great material, there are still some disadvantages, such as:
It cannot be used on heavily trafficked pavements.
Curing time is longer.
It was poured with no slump and a very low water-to-cement ratio, which made it difficult to work with.
It has a lower compressive strength than regular concrete.
Inadequate structural strength for the vast majority of applications
Cleaning is required to maintain permeability.
All of the water drainage can weaken the sub-base.
Issues with Permeable Concrete
Clogging Pervious concrete may become severely clogged as a result of poor maintenance. However, the permeability of porous concrete is unlikely to be affected.
Ravelling and abrasion One issue might be abrasion and ravelling. To reduce ravelling, good curing practices and an appropriate w/c ratio (not too low) are extremely important. A finished pavement will always have some loose stones, but severe ravelling is inappropriate. Ravelling may increase with the use of snowplows.
Freeze and Thaw If the placement were completely saturated, there is a significant risk that the pervious concrete would experience numerous cycles of freezing and thawing if it were exposed to very low temperatures.
The following actions can increase the permeable concrete’s resistance to freeze-thaw:
It can be improved by using fine aggregates to increase strength and slightly reduce voids to around 20%.
By using air-entraining admixtures to entrain air into the paste.
By installing a perforated PVC pipe in the aggregate base to collect all the water and allow it to drain beneath the pavement.
A concrete grinder is a versatile tool used in various construction and renovation projects. They are essential for preparing surfaces, smoothing out imperfections, and enhancing the appearance of concrete structures. In this article, we will delve into concrete grinders, their key components, the different types available, and the diverse range of applications they serve.
What is Concrete Grinder?
A concrete grinder is used to polish floor work surfaces. Concrete grinders are used to grind and polish materials such as concrete, marble, granite, and other materials.
Concrete grinders are occasionally custom-made to perform specific tasks. Concrete grinders are more powerful and built to withstand more pressure than marble grinders.
Concrete grinders have recently gained popularity among industries due to their versatility. In addition to finishing operations, concrete grinders remove adhesives and greasy-like substances from commercial floors.
Due to their versatility and ease of use, concrete grinders are frequently used in developed countries. Grinders remove material by rotary action rather than impact.
They typically leave a smoother profile than scarifying or shot blasting, and the depth of material removal is limited to about 1/8 inch. When working on hard, dense concrete, they may polish rather than rub the surface.
Components of Concrete Grinder
A rotating head on a concrete grinder is used to both level and smooth the surface. Diamond and Bond are the main components of the grinder. The grinder that is used for the grinding process has diamond particles embedded in it.
The bond is the material used to securely hold the diamond grit in the grinder. Diamond grinding is now mostly used to perform the process all over the world.
There are two methods for grinding: the dry method and the wet method. A wet method employs a continuous flow of water throughout the process. This method produces a large amount of slurry.
Another method is the dry method, which is carried out without the use of any liquid and generates a significant amount of dust. A dust containment unit can be used to collect dust in one container rather than letting it circulate in the air.
Bond
Bond is an important component of the grinder. Bonds help keep diamond particles in place. To ensure that the grinder works properly, ensure that the bond does not match the material being ground.
Throughout the process, the bond wears in a pattern or in a planned manner, exposing the new diamond to the surface for grinding without the diamond coming into direct contact with the surface.
Diamond
Diamonds come in a variety of sizes and shapes for grinding. Machines fitted with diamond-partial abrasives are used to polish concrete surfaces. These tools can assist in grinding down the concrete to the required level of smoothness and shine.
In order to complete this process, a synthetic diamond is used in a concrete grinder. Diamond sizes are described in terms of grits, and they come in a variety of sizes that are represented by a number known as the grit number.
The diamond’s grit number and corresponding grit size are inversely proportional to one another. Different applications depend on the size of the diamond; for instance, large diamonds are used to remove an aggressive coating from a concrete surface. Small-sized diamonds are used for polishing and honing purposes.
Diamond
Types of Concrete Grinder
The type of grinder to be used is entirely dependent on the job at hand and the material to be removed from the surface. The grinder is divided into two types.
1. Walk-Behind Concrete Grinder
A walk-behind grinder is a large unit that aids in the grinding of concrete over the body of the floor. These machines are capable of grinding larger areas of concrete. Many other walk-behind concrete grinders are powered by LP, gasoline, or diesel. The walk-behind grinder has wheels, making it easy to move this heavy machine.
2. Handheld Concrete Grinder
The handheld grinder is a small grinder that the user can hold in their hands while performing the process. This kind of grinder is used to grind concrete surfaces’ corners or difficult-to-reach places that walk-behind concrete grinders can’t access. This grinder has a smaller grinding area than a walk-behind concrete grinder. This grinding process produces a lot of dust, which can be extracted using an extraction hose attached to a tool or a shroud.
Uses of Concrete Surface Grinders
A concrete grinder can be used for a variety of tasks, including:
One application for a concrete surface grinder is to remove stubborn tile glues from the surface, which can be easily removed with the help of concrete grinding.
It is less expensive than many other methods of membrane removal.
A concrete grinder can be used to smooth out and polish unevenly cast concrete.
Concrete grinders produce a better surface finish on concrete than on other stone floor surfaces.
The concrete grinder can grind the surface of the concrete more than necessary to expose the aggregates and polish it to give it a nice aesthetic appearance. The grinding process makes old and worn-out concrete surfaces look as good as new. Concrete grinding removes all of the imperfections and inconsistencies in the concrete to make it look smooth and ready to use again.
Concrete grinding is used to polish the surfaces and give them a nice shine.
Dust and other impurities that build up on the surface over time are challenging to remove. But it’s simple to remove them all using a concrete grinder.
It is easier to install flooring after the concrete grinding process has been completed than the other way around.
This grinding process is long-lasting and durable. This process has proven to be effective even for rough applications.
A welding joint refers to the point where two or more pieces of material are joined together by the process of welding. It is the area where the welding operation takes place, and the joint must be properly prepared and positioned to ensure a strong and durable weld.
The welding joint can vary in shape, size, and configuration depending on the type of welding process, the materials being joined, and the intended application of the welded structure. Different joint designs are used to accommodate the specific requirements of the weld, such as strength, appearance, and resistance to stress or corrosion.
Types of Welding Joints
There are several types of welding joints commonly used in various welding processes. Here are some of the most commonly used welding joints:
Butt Welding Joints
A butt welding joint is a type of joint used to join two metal pieces along their edges in a straight line. It involves the fusion of the two metal surfaces to form a continuous weld. Butt joints can be used to join similar or dissimilar metals, depending on the welding process and the materials involved.
Welding Styles for Butt Joint
Bevel-Groove Butt Weld
J-Groove Butt Weld
Flare-Bevel-Groove Butt Weld
U-Groove Butt Weld
Flare-V-Groove Butt Weld
Square-Groove Butt Weld
Corner Welding Joints
A corner welding joint is a type of joint where two metal pieces are joined at a right angle, forming a corner. This type of joint is commonly used in welding applications, particularly in structural and fabrication work. Corner joints can be found in various industries, including construction, manufacturing, and metalwork.
Welding Styles for Corner Joint
The welding style for a corner joint depends on several factors, including the material being welded, joint thickness, welding process, and the desired strength and appearance of the joint. Here are some common welding styles used for corner joints:
Edge Weld
Bevel-Groove Weld
Corner-Flange Weld
Flare-V-Groove Weld
Spot-Weld
Fillet Weld
J-Groove Weld
V-Groove Weld
Square-Groove Weld or Butt Weld
U-Groove Weld
Tee Welding Joints
Tee welding joints, also known as T-joints, are a type of joint used to join two metal pieces at a right angle, forming a “T” shape. It is commonly used in welding applications where one piece of metal is welded perpendicularly to the surface of another piece. Tee joints can be found in various industries, including construction, fabrication, and metalwork.
Welding Styles for Tee Joint
When it comes to welding tee joints, several welding styles can be employed based on the specific welding process and materials involved. Here are some common welding styles for tee joints:
Bevel-Groove Weld
Fillet Weld
J-Groove Weld
Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld
Plug Weld
Slot Weld
Melt-Through Weld
Edge Welding Joints
Edge welding joints, also known as edge joints, are a type of joint used to join two metal pieces along their edges in a straight line. Unlike a butt joint, where the metal pieces are joined end-to-end, in an edge joint, the edges of the metal pieces are aligned and welded together. Edge joints are commonly used in welding applications, particularly in sheet metal fabrication and thin metal joining.
Welding Styles for Edge Joint
When it comes to welding edge joints, several welding styles can be used depending on the specific welding process and materials involved. Here are some common welding styles for edge joints:
Bevel-Groove Weld
Edge-Flange Weld
Corner-Flange Weld
J-Groove Weld
U-Groove Weld
V-Groove Weld
Square-Groove Weld or Butt Weld
Lap Welding Joints
Lap welding joints, also known as lap joints, are a type of joint used to join two metal pieces by overlapping them. In this joint, one piece of metal is placed over another, and the weld is applied along the overlapping region. Lap joints are commonly used in welding applications, particularly in sheet metal fabrication and joining thin metal plates.
Welding Style for Lap Joint
The welding style for a lap joint can vary depending on factors such as the material being welded, joint thickness, welding process, and desired strength and appearance of the joint.
Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld
J-Groove Weld
Bevel-Groove Weld
Slot Weld
Plug Weld
Spot-Weld
Advantage of Welding Joint
Welding joints offer several advantages over other methods of joining materials. Here are some of the key advantages of welding joints:
The welded joint has a high strength, sometimes greater than the parent metal. The welded joint cannot be easily failed by using the same or less amount of material that was used in either piece of metal prior to welding. When two different materials are welded, their properties combine to produce a high-quality weldment that is more effective and durable than the two original pieces. Typically, the welded joint is stronger than the parent metal.
Welding can be performed using a variety of materials, including mild steel, stainless steel, alloy steel, and other metals. Therefore, due to their high demand, various types of welding processes are needed to produce various kinds of components to meet various needs in industries. Welding is a simple way to join metals and is one of the most versatile joining processes. It can join metals in all directions, which other welding processes cannot.
Has the ability to manufacture heat-resistant materials such as alloy steel and stainless steel.
Components are simple to mass produce and save material.
Capable of creating complex structures
There is no need for machining after welding, which saves time and money; additionally, the quality is more accurate, and close tolerances can be achieved.
It is appropriate for high production and reduced product liability.
It is appropriate for large components, bulky parts, and high-quality demands.
Welding efficiency can be increased successfully by using robots or automated systems to perform the task of welding automatically and quickly.
While welding joints offer numerous advantages, there are also some disadvantages to consider. Here are a few common disadvantages associated with welding joints:
It is limited in size. It makes it difficult to maintain control over the thickness of the material.
A complex process.
It is not appropriate for a large sheet of metal.
Welding can generate sparks, which can ignite a fire.
Welding small items is simple, but welding large items is more difficult.
Welding experience is required for better outcomes. Because heating and cooling can degrade metal quality, the process must be carried out by an expert.
Welding fumes are unsafe, and protective clothing and masks are required.
Stamped concrete, in the context of construction and decorative concrete work, refers to a specialized tool or mold used to create patterns, textures, and designs on the surface of freshly poured concrete. The process involves pressing or stamping the tool onto the concrete while it is still in a plastic or workable state, leaving behind imprints that mimic the appearance of various materials, such as brick, slate, stone, tile, wood, and more.
Stamped concrete is typically made of durable materials like polyurethane or rubber to withstand the pressures and impacts of the stamping process. They come in a wide variety of patterns and designs, allowing for a range of customization in decorative concrete projects. The stamps are essential for achieving textured and aesthetically pleasing finishes in stamped concrete applications, such as patios, driveways, walkways, and pool decks.
The use of stamped concrete is a popular method for enhancing the visual appeal of concrete surfaces, providing a cost-effective alternative to using natural materials while still achieving a decorative and realistic appearance. The stamping process is often combined with coloring techniques to further enhance the overall look of the stamped concrete.
Procedure for Stamped Concrete
The procedure for installing stamped concrete involves a series of carefully executed steps to achieve a decorative and textured finish. Here is a detailed procedure for installing stamped concrete:
Addition of Base Color
The base color is the primary color used in the making of stamped concrete flooring. The base color was chosen to complement the building’s original color. It needs to blend harmoniously with any additional stones that have been placed close to the structure. The addition of a color hardener determines the basic color of the concrete. The color hardener for the base color is a powdered-like substance. There are two methods for coloring concrete with a color hardener.
Integral color
Cast on the color procedure
Integral Color
In this process, the base color is applied to the entire volume of concrete used in stamped concrete construction. The concrete mixer is entirely filled with hardened concrete of the appropriate color.
This allows the base color to be colored across the whole concrete in the mixer. The concrete is properly mixed, resulting in a consistent color distribution.
Cast On the Color Procedure
In this process, the base color is applied to the surface of the prepared concrete. The color hardener is spread on the surface of the concrete. This application is performed when the concrete is wet. After that, power is allowed to float over it. Concrete coloring can be done in many different ways. Using color hardener, acid stains, or an integrated liquid or powder are some of the coloring techniques. The above-mentioned integral procedure of coloring the concrete has the advantage of coloring the entire concrete mix (full volume). The concrete layer’s surface strength cannot be altered by the application of color hardening.
Addition of Accent Color
In stamped concrete, the accent color is a secondary color that is used to provide texture and other decorative components. The accent color is achieved by applying color release to the concrete. The color release used in stamped concrete has two objectives:
Use a color release to color the concrete.
Color release prevents concrete stamps from adhering to the concrete once the pattern is applied.
There are two types of color release available: liquid and powdered. The application procedure varies depending on the product form. The concrete surface is sprayed with liquid color release forms. This liquid solvent has an aromatic base. The powdered color release is applied using the cast-on color release method, in which the powered color release is poured over the surface of the concrete before stamping work begins. Spray-on color release is used for liquid color release, which is done after the concrete stamping is finished.
Stamping Patterns
The patterns on the stamped concrete are the shape of the stamp that was placed over it. These patterns are reflected in the shape of a natural building material. Using a concrete stamp, imprinting over the concrete is accomplished after it has been poured and levelled. Polyurethane is used to make the newest and most advanced concrete stamps. These were formerly composed of metal. The old concrete stamps lack the ability to provide texture that appears more realistic and similar to that of other building materials.
Concrete stamping is the process of creating patterns on stamped concrete with the use of concrete stamps. Concrete stamping is done only after the color release has been applied to the concrete. The concrete stamps are initially pressed into the wet concrete layer and then removed, leaving a pattern on the concrete. Most applications require stamped concrete that looks like brick, natural stone, flagstone, and so on.
How To Install Stamped Concrete?
Here’s what to anticipate when installing stamped concrete:
Preparation of the site and formwork
Concrete pouring, placing, and initial finishing
The application of a hardener and a releasing agent
Stamping the texture onto the concrete
More coloring, detailing, touch-ups, and jointing
Concrete curing and sealing
Contractors apply a release agent to the stamps and spread color hardener throughout the surface in addition to placing and impressing each stamp. Additional work needs to be done once the concrete sets, such as joint installation, detail work, and sealer application.
Stamped concrete is a versatile and decorative option that can be applied in various settings to enhance the aesthetics of both residential and commercial spaces. Some common applications are:
Patios
Car porches
Driveways
Pool decks
Interior flooring
Walkways and Pathways
Courtyard
Terraces and Balconies
Commercial Spaces
Interior Flooring
Stairs and Steps
Retaining Walls
Entryways
Public Spaces
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stamped Concrete
Advantages
It provides a decorative and visually appealing surface that can mimic the look of more expensive materials such as brick, slate, stone, or tile.
It comes in a wide variety of patterns, textures, and colors, offering flexibility in design to suit different styles and preference.
It becomes slip-resistant when treated with anti-skid chemicals.
Concrete stamped is strong and long-lasting.
It is simple to maintain when sealed.
The installation process of concrete stamped is often quicker than laying individual pavers or natural stone, making it a more time-efficient option.
Disadvantages
Concrete stamped is not a do-it-yourself project.
It can develop tiny cracks.
This concrete must be cleaned and resealed on a regular basis.
Freezing and thawing cycles have the potential to harm it.
It’s hard to repair this concrete.
Over time, the color of concrete stamp may fade, especially in areas exposed to sunlight. Regular resealing can help mitigate this issue.
Fiber-reinforced concrete is a type of concrete that consists of cement, aggregates, and a small amount of fibers. Fibers are used in concrete to reduce permeability, bleeding, and the formation of minor cracks. Additionally, fibers increase concrete’s tensile strength and impact resistance. The improvement of weakness is determined by several factors, including fiber materials, fiber shape and size, volume, and distribution pattern in the concrete mix.
Different Types of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Fibers for concrete come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The major factors that affect the properties of fiber-reinforced concrete are the water-cement ratio, the percentage of fibers, and the diameter and length of the fibers. The various types of fiber-reinforced concrete used in construction are listed below.
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Steel fiber is a type of metal reinforcement. A certain amount of steel fiber in concrete can cause qualitative changes in the physical properties of the concrete. It can significantly improve tenacity, durability, and other qualities like resistance to cracking, impact, fatigue, and bending. This types of fibres are widely used in structures like flooring, housing, precast, bridges, tunneling, heavy-duty pavement, and mining for improving long-term behavior and enhancing strength, toughness, and stress resistance.
Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) Concrete
Concrete reinforced with polypropylene fibers is also referred to as “polypropylene” or “PP.” It is a synthetic fiber made from propylene that is employed in a number of different applications. Typically, these fibers are added to concrete to prevent cracking brought on by drying shrinkage and plastic shrinkage. Additionally, they lessen the permeability of concrete, which in turn lessens water bleeding. Polypropylene fiber is non-polar, partially crystalline, and a member of the polyolefin family. Although it is harder and more heat-resistant than polyethylene, it shares many of the same qualities. It is made of a tough, white material that is highly chemically resistant. Polypropylene is created by combining propylene gas with a catalyst, such as titanium chloride. Polypropylene fiber is highly resistant to acids, alkalies, and organic solvents and has good heat insulation properties.
Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Glass fiber-reinforced concrete is a material made up of numerous extremely fine glass fibers. Glass fiber has mechanical properties that are roughly comparable to polymers and carbon fiber. Even though it is not as rigid as carbon fiber, it is significantly less brittle and much cheaper when used in composites. Therefore, glass fibers are used as a reinforcing agent in many polymer products to create glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), also known as “fiberglass,” which is a very strong and relatively lightweight fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite material. This material is much denser than glass wool, contains little to no air or gas, and performs much worse as a thermal insulator.
Polyester fibers
Polyester fibers are used in fiber-reinforced concrete, which is used in industrial and warehouse floors, pavements and overlays, and precast products. When properly designed, polyester micro- and macro-fibers improve toughness and the ability to deliver structural capacity in concrete, respectively, and provide good resistance to the formation of plastic shrinkage cracks compared to welded wire fabric.
Carbon fibers
Carbon fibers are fibers with a diameter of 5–10 micrometers and are primarily made of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have a various benefits, including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance, and low thermal expansion. Typically, carbon fibers are combined with other materials to form a composite. When carbon fiber is impregnated with a plastic resin and baked, it forms carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (also known as carbon fiber), which has a very high strength-to-weight ratio and is extremely rigid, though somewhat brittle. Carbon fibers are also mixed with other materials, such as graphite, to create reinforced carbon composites with extremely high heat tolerance.
Natural fibers
Natural fiber can be obtained directly from an animal, vegetable, or mineral source and converted into nonwoven fabrics such as felt or paper, or into woven cloth after spinning into yarns. A natural fiber is also defined as an agglomeration of cells with a small diameter in comparison to their length. Despite the fact that fibers are abundant in nature, especially those that are cellulosic, like cotton, wood, grains, and straw. Since many of these fibers are readily available locally and are abundant, it is recommended to use them when making concrete. The concept of adding such fibers to brittle materials to increase their strength and durability is not new; for instance, straw and horsehair are used to make bricks and plaster. Natural fibers are suitable for concrete reinforcement and are widely available in developing countries.
Applications of fiber-reinforced concrete depend on how the applicator and builder take advantage of the static and dynamic characteristics of the material. Some of its areas of application are:
Runway
Bridges
Pavements
Slope Stabilization
Tunnel Lining
Dams
Thin Shell
Walls
Pipes
Aircraft Parking
Manholes
Hydraulic Structure
Elevated decks
Roads
Warehouse floors
Advantages of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
High tensile strength and resistance to thermal shocks and fatigue stresses.
Reduced permeability, bleeding, and the formation of microcracks.
Enhanced toughness.
High rigidity at the flexure.
Minimal impact of weathering.
Reduces deflection.
Little corrosion.
Disadvantages of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Fibers are expensive.
To prevent lumps from forming and poor mixing, the fibers in concrete should be distributed evenly.
The coarse aggregate can only be larger than 10 mm.
Mixing fibers in huge volumes could be time-consuming.
Skilled labor is needed when using FRC in construction.
There are several types of scaffolding, each with its own set of advantages. The type of scaffolding used is determined by the circumstances of the construction project. Each project’s size and complexity will determine which type or types are necessary to complete the work effectively and safely.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a temporary structure used by workers to keep them safe, provide quick access, and enhance productivity while remodeling, maintaining, repairing, or cleaning a building. It is made out of one or more planks of a suitable size and length, with different methods of support depending on the form and use.
Scaffolding is an essential component of practically all building projects and has been utilized since the beginning of time. Scaffolding, which is commonly used to gain access to structures at high heights during construction, may serve a variety of functions.
Scaffolding is sometimes used to support workers and their equipment, but it is also used to support heavy loads from construction materials such as bricks, blocks, stucco, or cast-in-place concrete, which is recognized as shoring rather than scaffolding.
Despite the fact that there are several forms of scaffolding, new versions are introduced on a regular basis. Some of the most common forms of scaffolding used all over the world are:
Different Types of Scaffolding Components
Standards- vertical post
Ledgers are horizontal members.
Braces—A system of bracing.
Putlogs-horizontal elements fastened to the building’s wall
Transoms: Double formwork ledgers support both ends.
Bridle: a device used to bridge gaps.
Boarding: Platforms used by workers to stand on.
Guard rail-utilized to keep the workers working on the board safe (planks)
Toeboards- are boards that are set parallel to the boards near the wall.
Soleplate or baseplate-plates used to support the guard.
Basis jack—the formwork’s load-bearing base
Scaffold tie-Used to attach formwork to other structures.
Types of Scaffolding
Frame & Brace Scaffolding
Tube & Clip Scaffolding
Wooden & Bamboo Scaffolding
Suspended/Swinging Scaffolding
Shoring
Mast Climbing Scaffolding
Systems Scaffolding
Staircase Tower Scaffolding
Kwikstage Scaffolding
Cuplock Scaffolding
Haki Scaffoldin
Frame & Brace Scaffolding
The components of this type of modular scaffolding include bases, braces, planks, and frames. This scaffold is incredibly light and easy to construct. This type of scaffolding is not as durable as system scaffolding.
In small-scale projects where scaffolding might be made mobile, frame and brace scaffolding is commonly used.
Tube & Clamp Scaffolding
This is among the earliest forms of steel scaffolding and consists of two components, including the tubes and clips, also known as “couples.” The concept is extremely basic, and one of the reasons it’s so popular is the ease of installation and disassembly. To construct the scaffold, connect tubes together to form long runs, then join the verticals and horizontals with clamps designed specifically for these tubes.
This design is particularly adaptable since the verticals may be placed wherever they are needed. Whereas other forms of scaffolding cannot easily be formed into odd shapes, tube and clamp scaffolding may be adapted to round, straight, or irregular buildings. This scaffolding’s steel is particularly built to resist rust and corrosion, making it an ideal choice for tough weather areas.
Wooden & Bamboo Scaffolding
Bamboo scaffolding is a form of scaffolding constructed of bamboo that is widely used across the world. It has established itself as a useful substitute for steel and is famous for its strength, flexibility, and innovative prospects.
Suspended or Swing Set Scaffolding
Although some scaffolders do not consider this structure to be scaffolding, designers do because it is not constructed from the ground. After all, its primary function is to support scaffolders and their equipment.
This scaffolding comprises of a platform hung by a cable system that allows the platform to ascend to different heights. Suspended scaffolds can save money on very tall buildings that require low-duty access, such as ongoing building maintenance and minor renovations.
Shoring
Shoring systems are temporary structures used to support permanent structures such as buildings or bridges. The formwork holds the liquid concrete until it hardens into a solid that can support itself.
Mast Climbing Scaffolding
Mast climbers, like suspended scaffolding, may be extended to various heights. Instead of being supported by wires, this scaffold can climb up and down permanent mast structures built on the ground. Scaffolds that need to support heavy loads prefer this type of scaffolding.
Systems Scaffolding
Systems scaffolding, commonly referred to as modular scaffolding, typically consists of vertical and horizontal pre-engineered components that connect to one another in a systematic way.
Systems scaffolding is one of the most commonly used forms of scaffolding worldwide, and there are hundreds of manufacturers, each with unique characteristics. Some are more suited to high-load circumstances, while others are better suited to smaller repetitive scaffold structures.
Systems scaffolding refers to a broad range of scaffolding types that may be utilized to design uniform scaffolding bays. The following are some of the most common forms of system scaffolding:
Staircase Tower Scaffolding
Kwikstage Scaffolding
Cuplock Scaffolding
Haki Scaffolding
Staircase Tower Scaffolding
The scaffolding staircase tower is used to gain access to the main scaffolding platform for work since it is safer than using a ladder. Similarly, a staircase tower can be used to function autonomously from its own platform for little tasks such as light repair, etc. Workers may take tools and equipment up the steps, which is safer than climbing a ladder. Most system scaffold manufacturers develop particular components for use in the construction of a staircase. In addition, the access scaffolding tower is important for gaining temporary access to a building’s high height for any necessary maintenance.
Kwikstage Scaffolding
Kwikstage is a flexible and multi-purpose modular scaffolding system. This type of scaffolding system is very helpful when the building’s façade is complicated and a conventional facade scaffolding cannot be positioned.
The best feature of modular scaffolding, like the kwikstage, is that it can be customized to any shape based on the architectural layout of the building. A quick stage can also be placed on either side of the building’s facade, making the project as easy as possible.
The modular scaffolding system consists of several single components that may be joined together flexibly to create the appropriate scaffold for the project. Single components are also easier to stack, move, and connect. The quick stage scaffold remains in place and has a secure vertical alignment due to the lack of loose components. As a result, the kwikstage is a safe scaffolding system that workers may use without fear.
Due to these useful qualities, the kwikstage scaffolding system is becoming popular in the engineering and construction industries and can facilitate the installation of unusual building structures.
Kwikstage Scaffolding Advantages:
Longevity: kwikstage scaffolding is made of durable materials that will last for a long time.
Adaptability: KWikstage scaffolding is adaptable to various construction sites and building types.
Increased productivity: Because this scaffolding can support multiple workers at once, productivity is increased.
Lower maintenance costs: It doesn’t necessitate expensive maintenance.
There are no loose fittings: the wedge lock system is screw and nut free.
Labor Saving: This scaffold’s ability to be quickly and easily assembled and disassembled is a great feature.
Cuplock Systems Scaffolding
Cuplock systems scaffolding is popular due to its capacity to sustain heavy loads. It is typically composed of galvanized steel. This type of scaffolding creates highly uniform systems with cuplocks every 500 to 1,000 millimeters, which works well for scaffolding designs with repetitive patterns.
Haki Scaffolding
Haki is a more modern method that is used in scaffolding, shoring, and suspended systems. In contrast to other types of scaffolding, Haki is a brand name for both the manufacturer and a specific type of scaffolding system. In terms of safety, quality, and flexibility, Haki scaffolding is lighter and has fewer parts than other systems.
Why is scaffolding used in the construction industry?
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IT ENSURES SAFETY
There is always some risk and hazard involved with working at heights. As previously stated, scaffolding platforms offer a safe and secure environment for builders to perform their tasks while working at a significant height. Scaffolding not only protects workers’ health, but security measures such as barrier netting and fencing protect the people below the scaffolding as well. These barriers catch any loose debris and aid in the development of a totally safe and secure working environment for all concerned.
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IT’S EFFICIENT
Scaffolding provides a safe and secure platform for builders and workers to carry out their jobs. Scaffolding enhances the efficiency of any construction operation by allowing it to move swiftly and easily around structures of any form and size. It is simple to comprehend how these platforms minimize the time spent on-site when time is of the essence. That’s why scaffolding is important during construction. Scaffolding structures only require a single working day to be built.
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QUICK ACCESS
Scaffolding allows builders and laborers to access portions of buildings that would be difficult to reach, allowing them to create and construct in a more creative manner. Platforms, especially customizable scaffolding, can also be built in such a way that workers can carry out any design or plan. Scaffolding has been utilized to create some of the world’s most renowned and famous structures.
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PREMIER POSITION FOR WORKERS
Scaffolding provides a safe and convenient platform for builders or workers to complete their tasks. They are no longer reliant solely on ladders, which can be unstable and dangerous. When a worker or builder uses a ladder, they typically work at an angle, lack a secure environment from which they can work, and generally experience unsteady balance.In fact, scaffolding places workers in front of the building where they can easily operate on parts of the wall or ceiling. Additionally, it creates an opportunity for numerous people to work side by side at the same time, which is not possible with a ladder.
Advantages of Scaffolding
Scaffolding is well-known for making construction-related tasks easier; thus, you can feel confident knowing of its numerous benefits.
Easy Accessibility
One of the most important advantages of undertaking this process is that it is accessible. It reduces disruptions and also contributes to the creation of a secure working environment. It is easier to develop an interconnected layout that provides complete access to the entire area.
Balances Perfectly
The scaffolding provides the employees with a stable platform. It helps workers balance themselves in various positions. It can also assist with certain tasks and functions.
Safety
One of the most significant benefits of scaffolding is that it can help to increase productivity. It improves worker efficiency and makes the process safe and secure. But since construction is a physically demanding task, this can help in the construction of a better workplace.
Assembling and Dismantling
The structure of assembling and dismantling the scaffolds are simple and easy. As a result, this saves time and speeds up the process. It takes the least amount of time to put up and take down. Consider this your primary scaffolding option.
Long-Lasting
The most important benefit of this process is that the structure is long-lasting. It also provides a number of bridging points, reducing the distance that workers must travel. This saves your workers’ time and energy. Its durability ensures that the process is safe and secure.
For generations, different types of sewer pipes have been used. As a result, knowing the different types of obsolete and new sewer pipes can aid in proper maintenance or the design and installation of an efficient sewer pipe system.
What Are Sewer Pipes?
Sewer pipes are used to dispose of waste. Sewer pipes are made of various materials and come in a variety of sizes.
Sewer pipes’ main job is to transport wastewater or sewage from residential or commercial structures to the drainage system so it can be treated or removed. Sewer pipes can become damaged or decay over time, necessitating repairs or replacement.
The sewer pipes are installed a few feet beneath the surface, providing the home and business owners with a good amount of clear space. Various types of sewer pipes are used depending on the weather in the area, and they are also repaired, replaced, or upgraded depending on the time.
This article discusses the various types of sewer pipes, including cast iron,clay, copper, PVC, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and Orangeburg.
TYPES OF SEWER PIPES
cast Iron Sewer Pipe
This type of sewer pipe is typically used in older residences. Cast iron sewer pipes are great because, in comparison to other sewer pipes, they have incredible strength. It is stated that a linear foot of 4 inch-diameter cast-iron pipe can sustain 2 tons of pressure. Other pipes, such as ABS, PVC, and clay pipes, have the potential to break. Despite its enormous strength, it has some drawbacks, such as the fact that it is difficult to operate due to its weight and difficult to cut the pipe to the appropriate length.
Concrete Pipes
Concrete has been used as a piping material as well as an encasement for clay piping. Concrete sewer pipes are extremely durable, with an average life span of about 30 years. Concrete is regarded as one of the sewer pipe materials of the new generation, along with plastics. While concrete sewer pipes are not immune to damage or aging, which can require repairs or replacement, this type of sewer piping is currently popular due to its affordability, strength, and longevity.
Clay Sewer Pipes
The most common type of sewer pipe is clay sewer pipe. These are capable of transporting the majority of waste and are constructed from a clay and shale mixture. They are also inert, which means they will not catch fire. Despite being rust-proof, reinforced concrete pipes are more durable than clay pipes. Although they are the least expensive option, these pipes are prone to cracking when placed under extreme pressure. Due to more advanced and effective materials, these are now rarely used and difficult to find on the market.
Copper Pipes
These sewer pipes are thought to be more expensive than other types of pipes. However, they are incredibly durable and have the highest level of heat resistance. Copper pipes can be utilized in situations when the walls of the pipe may expand, as well as when the sewer pipe is covered in concrete.
Galvanized Pipes
Galvanized pipes are designed to endure longer and are commonly used in household drainage systems. Galvanized pipes are strengthened by being dipped in molten zinc. Actually, they are designed to withstand rust. However, despite being slightly more expensive due to their complex manufacturing process, galvanized pipes can be used practically everywhere in your house.
Orangeburg Sewer Pipe
Orangeburg pipe is a bituminized pipe made of layers of wood pulp fibers crushed and bonded by a water-resistant adhesive coated with liquefied coal tar pitch. The sewer pipe has the benefit of being water-resistant since it has a water-resistant adhesive added to it. Currently, in the plumbing system, plumbers are accustomed to preferring this type of pipe since it is lightweight and simple to cut to the required size with a standard wood saw. This type of pipe decreases installation stress when first laid on a sand bed for proper fiber conduit pipe installation. Because this type of pipe has a lifespan of more than 50 years, it is no longer visible in the plumbing system.
PVC & ABS Sewer Pipe
PVC and ABS sewer pipe are two types of plastic pipe; PVC is white plastic pipe and ABS is black plastic pipe. Both the black and white plastic pipes for solid waste have a smooth interior part for carrying. At the same time, it has a smooth exterior that helps prevent tree root anchorage. The PVC and ABS plastic pipe has a diameter of 4 inches and is very easy to use and readily available near the construction site. Nowadays, these types of pipes are the most common and affordable, as well as the easiest to cut and lightweight. Another advantage of this kind of plastic pipe is that it can be used with cast-iron and clay pipes.
The sewer line’s pipes react to the wastewater as it passes through them. Metal sewer lines are commonly used in most homes. Excessive corrosion speeds up line wear and tear and raises the risk of leaks into your home. To find corrosion, conduct a camera inspection.
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Blockage
This occurs when you flush items that cannot drain correctly down your drain. If you flush diapers, wipes, and tampons down the toilet, you risk clogging it. Water backup, gurgling pipe noises, and slowed drains are the most common signs of a blockage.
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Tree root intrusion
Tree roots may come into contact with your sewer line when they extend out in search of moisture. If the pipes have cracks, the roots may, over time, cause them to collapse or cause sewer blockages. Therefore, to prevent future sewer issues, be aware of where your plumbing systems are located when planting trees.
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Pipe shifting and breakage
Your sewer pipes may also burst due to aging and pipe displacement, in addition to tree roots. Your sewage line may start to alter shape and obstruct appropriate wastewater drainage when your foundation changes as a result of too much weight or when excessive rainwater seeps underground.
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The house has a sewage odor
This seemingly insignificant issue could have a huge impact on your indoor air quality and comfort. Whenever your drain caps are missing or not properly installed, your home may begin to smell like the sewer system. Practice checking your P-traps or drain caps.
The various types of door locks are the perfect items to get your hands on if you want to keep your homes and offices safe or secure different areas within them. Door locks, like no other tool, provide protection and safety while also protecting your privacy.
There is a vast choice of door locks to choose from, ranging from simple and elegant designs to elegant locks that add value to your doors.
However, you should choose a lock based not only on its appearance but also on its functionality, efficiency, operation, and other factors.
The door locks are important for the safety and security of one’s house. They are essential for keeping your home or workplace secure and private. With technical advancements and the demand for functionality, we now have a variety of door locks to meet the demands of individuals. In comparison to a private entrance, an office chamber, or gates, a home’s central door may require a tight security lock.
Types of locks
There are several types of door locks that exist due to the different levels of security and types of doors that must be locked.
1. Barrel BoltBarrel bolts are a type of classic sliding bolt. Nonetheless, they are among the safest to use for secure living inside. A barrel sliding bolt helps lock and unlock these old-fashioned door lock types, and the components that would go with them are fixed on the door frame and the doors.
2. Cam Lock:Cam locks, as the name implies, are not to be confused with any locks that resemble a camera. These have been given names based on their looks. Cam locks are commonly seen near mailboxes, lockers, cabinets, deposit boxes, and other similar items. They’re a much simpler type to use; all you need is a key to turn on a cam that spins to lock or release it. They come in flat or tubular shapes and are quite simple to use.
3. Chain Lock
These chain locks are commonly found inside hotel rooms or on the main doors of houses and apartments. They contribute to providing an extra layer of protection. These chains appear like a bolt to lock in and catch the door frame and door. The benefit of a chain lock like this is that it allows you to open the door slightly to observe who is standing outside without having to open the full door or bolt.
4. DeadboltsIn addition to door knobs, deadbolts are commonly used to provide extra security. Several workplaces and residences use these door lock types in conjunction with doorknobs. To secure a lock system, a single or double cylinder design and hardware system are employed; this reduces the chance of unknown persons inside.
5. Digital or Smart Lock
The most current form of door lock to reach the market is the smart lock. With these locks, your smartphone acts as the key, allowing you to provide remote access to your home from anywhere in the world. Smart locks are frequently much more than locks. These smart locks are part of a larger system that includes audio and video surveillance as well as other smart features that provide you with complete control over your home’s security.
Most smart locks, like electronic locks, will have a keyhole to use if you aren’t connected to the app. There are three basic types of smart door locks:
Wi-fi Smart Locks
When you are connected to the internet, you can control your device from anywhere using Wi-Fi smart lock systems. You can let someone into your house even if you’re not there. Wi-Fi systems drain batteries much faster than other types of smart locks. As a result, your lock’s batteries may need to be replaced every month or more.
Bluetooth Smart Locks
The batteries in Bluetooth smart lock systems are not drained as quickly. In fact, this is the most commonly used connection for smart locks right now.
These locks connect directly to your smartphone and will not require the use of a hub. When you’re within range, use your Bluetooth device to unlock or lock your door.
The disadvantage of Bluetooth smart locks is that you can not operate them while they are out of range. As a result, if you want to be able to operate your doors when you’re away from home, you may want to look into another option.
Z-wave Smart locks
To control a Z-Wave smart lock using an internet-connected mobile device, you must be connected to a hub. This type of smart lock combines Wi-Fi and Bluetooth locks. To operate, the smart lock must be within a certain distance of the hub. If the hub cannot be placed within an appropriate range, signal range extenders can be used to help enhance the signal.
6. Disc Locks
These types of locks, sometimes known as circular locks, are suitable for storage units or boxes. This is similar to a padlock in appearance and function, but it is more secure and thicker when fastened to the door. The main component here is the curved bar, which protrudes from one side of the lock to travel towards the door handle and then locks back. These can also be detached.
7. Electronic Lock
These are the modern locking mechanisms. There are no keys or devices required to lock or open the door. Instead, a card or keypad with a unique code or bar is used to lock or open the door automatically. These are commonly seen near businesses and hotel rooms. These are powered by electricity or batteries and have a lengthy lifespan. The new improvements in electronic locks also allow others through remote entrance, even without cards, for visitors. A user can get remote access to this electric panel by using door lock types, smartphones, or connected computer systems.
8. Furniture Lock
As the names imply, these locks are great for furniture locks such as desks or cabinets. Furniture locks come in two styles: bolt style and push-style button. Bolt-style furniture locks have a flat metal plate on the side that secures and closes the door. These are particularly well-known in and around cabinets and drawers. These are particularly well-known in the vicinity of cabinets and drawers. The push-type button, on the other hand, is secured by a rod that extends from the back of the lock. The gadget is locked when the lock button is pressed from within. These would be ideal for file cabinets or sliding doors.
9. Knob LocksThe knob locks are also well-known. These days, they may be found in practically every house and apartment complex. Aside from deadbolts, they are affixed to the outside of the doors for safety and security. These door knob locks feature single or double cylinder mechanisms that lock on doors. They aren’t the safest though because hammers or other heavy items can easily break the knots. As a result, having deadbolts and doorknobs on the exact exterior is always a good idea. However, these apartment front door lock types are simple to use and convenient.
10. Latch LocksThese types of door locks are common ones that you may have seen outside. When the key is inserted into the cylinder, the internal components move, engaging the door’s bolt and latch. To lock and unlock the door, this latch slides within and out of the door frame (box). These systems frequently employ the deadbolt or spring bolt mechanisms previously mentioned.
11. Lever HandleThese types of door locks are a common choice for interior doors in homes or workplaces. They are mostly used in business contexts, such as stores or offices. This type of lock has a sizable pushdown style handle that opens the lock. Instead of a forceful twist like the knob doors, this simple lever handle gently presses. Instead of a forceful twist like knob doors, this simple lever handle simply presses. However, one should be aware that they do not provide strong security and are not suitable for primary outside doors.
12. Multipoint Lock
The multipoint lock is a unique technology that secures the side of the door with a long strip. These locks, as the name suggests, have several functions. These are relatively new on the market and are ideal for adding an additional layer of protection and safety to large interior doors.
13. Padlocks
Padlocks are one of the most common and widely used door locks. These aren’t the ones that are attached permanently. However, they are transportable. They’re available in a variety of sizes. Padlocks are divided into two types: keyed locks and combination locks. One can set up number dials to unlock the lock after someone enters the correct combination. A specific key is required to unlock a keyed lock. These are one of the simplest and quickest lock options, ideal for standard doors, office cabinets, or chambers. Furthermore, when utilizing this lock, no key is required.
14. Rim or Mortise Lock
Rim or mortise door lock types are the most preferred for big business doors, glass doors, or beautiful structures. Rim cylinder locks are attached and installed within the door, which seems to be a long metal component extended outside. Within this rim and mortise towards the edge, a box lock is commonly installed. Mortise locks are a strong option for door security. This is an excellent selection of business door locks.
15. Vending or T handle Locks
As the name implies, these locks are the most popular for vending machines. T-handle locks are a unique and easy-to-use option. To unlock a device, pull out the T-handle. As a result, the installation of new locks takes time. For ease of usage, this is the most popular form of door handle knock.
Engineering economy is calculating, estimating, and assessing the projected economic implications of options meant to achieve a certain goal. Mathematical approaches make it easier to evaluate economic options.
Engineering Economics is a critical subject for engineers. This topic helps students comprehend the need of economic information in order to be an effective manager and decision maker.
Economic concepts are utilized to make business decisions in an unpredictable and changing business environment. Economics theories cover topics such as demand, price, cost, production, competition, trade cycles, and national income, and others.
Engineering economics is concerned with the systematic assessment of the economic advantages of proposed engineering solutions. Engineering economics is concerned with technical analysis with a focus on economic factors, with the goal of helping decision-making.
Engineering economics and conventional microeconomics are closely related. It is concerned with operational issue solving and decision making. Thus, “Engineering Economics” refers to “the parts of economics and their analytical tools that are most important to the engineer’s decision-making process.”
The seven-step methods used to support decision making are as follows:
1. Identifying, defining, and evaluating the issue.
2. Look for options that are both prospective and realistic.
3. Including the fundamental cash flow method.
4. The decision should promote the organization’s long-term interests.
5. Examining the economic elements of the engineering problem:
6. The preferable option is determined by the total effort.
7. Take special care to ensure feedback is given for operational improvements.
Interest
Interest is the amount of money paid for the use of borrowed capital (from the borrower’s perspective) or the revenue generated by money loaned (from the lender’s perspective).
F= P+I
Where:
I = interest
P = principal or present worth
F = accumulated amount or future worth
Simple Interest
In simple interest, just the initial principle bears interest, and the amount of interest to be paid changes directly with time.
The simple interest formula is as follows:
I = Prt
The future amount is
F= P + I
F= P + Prt
Where I = interest P = principal, present amount, capital F = future amount, maturity value r = rate of simple interest expressed in decimal form t = time in years, term in years
Ordinary and Exact Simple Interest When the time t is specified in days, the fractional part of the year is computed with a denominator of 360, 365, or 366. The denominator in ordinary simple interest is 360, but the denominator in precise simple interest is either 365 or 366. As a result, we might argue that ordinary interest is bigger than precise interest.
Ordinary simple interest is calculated using the banker’s year.
Banker’s year
Year = 12 months
1 month = 30 days (all months)
1 year = 360 days
The actual number of days in a year is used to calculate exact simple interest. One year consists of 365 days in the regular year and 366 days in the leap year. A leap year is one in which the month of February is 29 days long, as opposed to an ordinary year in which the month is only 28 days long. Every four years, a leap year is observed.
If d is the number of days in a month, then… In ordinary simple interest.
t = d/360
In exact simple interest
t = d/365 ( for ordinary year)
t = d/366 (for leap year)
COMPOUND INTEREST
In compound interest, the interest earned by the principal at the conclusion of each interest period (compounding period) is added to the principal. The whole (principal + interest) will earn interest again in the following compounding period.
Elements of Compound Interest
P = principal, present amount F = future amount, compound amount i = interest rate per compounding period r = nominal annual interest rate n = total number of compounding in t years t = number of years m = number of compounding per year
Cash flow
The amount of money documented as revenues or disbursements in a project’s financial documents.
A cash flow diagram depicts the flow of cash as arrows on a time line scaled to the amount of the cash flow, with costs represented by downward arrows and receipts represented by upward arrows. Year-end convention costs incurred during the year are presumed to be incurred at the conclusion of the year.
Bonds
Certificates of indebtedness
Bond Value-present worth of all future amounts that are expected to be received through ownership of a bond
Discount
A discount is the difference between the future worth of a certain commodity and its present worth. There are two kinds of discounts: A trade discount is a discount offered by a seller in order to encourage trading. A cash discount is a decrease in the selling price given to entice a buyer to pay immediately.
D = F – P
Where:
D = amount of discount
F = accumulated amount or future worth
P = principal or present worth
Discount Rate – is a discount of one unit of principal per unit of time.
Fd = F – P
P=F (1 -d) for 1 year
P= F(1-nd) for n years
The following is the link between the discount rate and the interest rate:
Where:
d = discount rate for the period involved
i = rate of interest for the same period
Annuities and Capitalized Cost
Annuity
An annuity is a series of payments that are made at regular periods. Annuities include financial activities such as installment payments, monthly leases, life insurance premiums, and monthly retirement benefits.
Elements of Annuity A = amount of periodic payment P = present amount of all periodic payments F = future worth of all periodic payments after the last payment is made i = interest rate per compounding period n = total number of payments m = nominal rate (see compounded interest) t = number of years
Types of Annuities
ORDINARY ANNUITY
Payment are made at the end of each period.
The future amount F in the cash flow diagram above is the sum of payments from the end of the first period to the end of the nth period. Take note that the total number of payments is n, as is the total number of compounding periods. As a result, the number of payments and the number of compounding periods in a regular annuity are identical.
Future amount of ordinary annuity, F
Present amount of ordinary annuity, PPeriodic payment of annuity, A Value of A if F is known:Value of A if P is known:
ANNUITY DUE
Payments are made at the beginning of each period.
F1 is the total of n ordinary annuity payments, as shown in the diagram above. F1 is one compounding period away from the future amount of annuity due at the end of the nth period. In symbol, F = F1 (1 + i).
Future amount of annuity due, F
Present amount of annuity due, P
DEFERRED ANNUITY
Payment id deferred a certain number of period.
The first payment was made at the end of the kth period, and a total of n payments were paid, as shown in the diagram. As seen in the diagram, the n payments generate a regular annuity.
Future amount of deferred annuity, F
Future amount of deferred annuity, F
PERPETUITY
Whose payment continue forever.
There is no definite future in perpetuity, thus, there is no formula for the future amount.
P is the current amount of perpetuity
From the current value of the ordinary annuity:
Arithmetic Gradient
Arithmetic gradients change by the same amount each period.
Geometric Gradient
Geometric gradients change by the same percentage each period.
DEPRECIATION
Depreciation is the decrease in the value of physical properly (except land) with the passage of time.
Book Value: the value of property as recorded in an enterprise’s accounting records.
Salvage/Resale Value: the amount earned from the sale of a property after it has been utilized.
Scrap Value: the amount of money that a piece of property would sell for if it were thrown away.
Types of Depreciation
1.Straight-Line Method
A method based on the assumption that the decrease in value is exactly proportionate to the property’s age
Straight Line Method Formula:
2.Declining Balance
The declining balance method assumes that the yearly cost of depreciation is a set percentage (k) of the salvage value at the start of the year.Note: This method is not applicable if there is no salvage value.
3.Double Declining Balance Method
A method similar to the declining balance method in which the rate of depreciation k is substituted by 2/L.
4.Sum-of-the-Year’s-Digits (SYD)
The sum-of-the-year’s-digits method also provides for accelerated depreciation. To begin, combine all of the digits from the asset’s projected life.
Sum-of-the-years-digits method formula:
4.Sinking Fund Method
The Sinking Fund Method is based on the assumption that a sinking fund has been established in which cash will accumulate for replacement. The whole amount of depreciation that has occurred up to that point is presumed to be equal to the cumulative amount in the sinking fund at that time.
5.Units-of-Production Method
The units-of-production depreciation method depreciates assets during their useful life based on the total number of hours utilized or the total number of units to be generated by using the asset.
Units-of-Production Method Formula:
Break-Even Analysis
Calculate when revenue equals cost, or when one alternative equals another if both are dependent on the same variable.
Inflation
Inflation is defined as an increase in the price of goods and services from one year to the next, reducing money’s buying power.
Where:
FC = future cost of a commodity
PC = present cost of a commodity
f = annual inflation rate
n = number of years
In an inflationary economy, the purchasing power of money declines as costs increase:
If interest is calculated at the same time as inflation,
Where:
F = future worth of today’s present amount P
f = annual inflation rate
n = number of years
i = rate of interest
If the uninflated present value is to be calculated,
Benefits -Cost Ratio Method
Benefits-Cost Ratio-refers to a financial measurement that helps in determining the feasibility of a proposed project based on its anticipated costs and benefits. To put it another way, the ratio defines the link between the predicted added gain from a project and the expenditures associated with its completion.
The B/C ratio is defined as the ratio of the equivalent worth measure applied can be present worth, annual worth, or future worth.
Conventional B/C ratio with PWWhere: PW = present worth B= benefits of proposed project 1= initial investment in the proposed projects O & M= operating & maintenance costs of the proposed project
Modified B/C ratio with PW:
Conventional B/C ratio with AW
Modified B/C ratio with AW:Conventional Benefits Cost Ratio with PW, Salvage value (S)
Modified Benefits Cost Ratio with PW, Salvage value (S)
