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The various types of door locks are the perfect items to get your hands on if you want to keep your homes and offices safe or secure different areas within them. Door locks, like no other tool, provide protection and safety while also protecting your privacy. 

There is a vast choice of door locks to choose from, ranging from simple and elegant designs to elegant locks that add value to your doors. 

However, you should choose a lock based not only on its appearance but also on its functionality, efficiency, operation, and other factors.

The door locks are important for the safety and security of one’s house. They are essential for keeping your home or workplace secure and private. With technical advancements and the demand for functionality, we now have a variety of door locks to meet the demands of individuals. In comparison to a private entrance, an office chamber, or gates, a home’s central door may require a tight security lock.

Types of  locks

There are several types of door locks that exist due to the different levels of security and types of doors that must be locked.

1. Barrel BoltBarrel bolts are a type of classic sliding bolt. Nonetheless, they are among the safest to use for secure living inside. A barrel sliding bolt helps lock and unlock these old-fashioned door lock types, and the components that would go with them are fixed on the door frame and the doors.

2. Cam Lock:Cam locks, as the name implies, are not to be confused with any locks that resemble a camera. These have been given names based on their looks. Cam locks are commonly seen near mailboxes, lockers, cabinets, deposit boxes, and other similar items. They’re a much simpler type to use; all you need is a key to turn on a cam that spins to lock or release it. They come in flat or tubular shapes and are quite simple to use.

3. Chain Lock

These chain locks are commonly found inside hotel rooms or on the main doors of houses and apartments. They contribute to providing an extra layer of protection. These chains appear like a bolt to lock in and catch the door frame and door. The benefit of a chain lock like this is that it allows you to open the door slightly to observe who is standing outside without having to open the full door or bolt.

4. DeadboltsIn addition to door knobs, deadbolts are commonly used to provide extra security. Several workplaces and residences use these door lock types in conjunction with doorknobs. To secure a lock system, a single or double cylinder design and hardware system are employed; this reduces the chance of unknown persons inside.

5. Digital or Smart Lock

The most current form of door lock to reach the market is the smart lock. With these locks, your smartphone acts as the key, allowing you to provide remote access to your home from anywhere in the world. Smart locks are frequently much more than locks. These smart locks are part of a larger system that includes audio and video surveillance as well as other smart features that provide you with complete control over your home’s security. 

Most smart locks, like electronic locks, will have a keyhole to use if you aren’t connected to the app. There are three basic types of smart door locks:

Wi-fi Smart Locks

When you are connected to the internet, you can control your device from anywhere using Wi-Fi smart lock systems. You can let someone into your house even if you’re not there. Wi-Fi systems drain batteries much faster than other types of smart locks. As a result, your lock’s batteries may need to be replaced every month or more.

Bluetooth Smart Locks

The batteries in Bluetooth smart lock systems are not drained as quickly. In fact, this is the most commonly used connection for smart locks right now. 

These locks connect directly to your smartphone and will not require the use of a hub. When you’re within range, use your Bluetooth device to unlock or lock your door. 

The disadvantage of Bluetooth smart locks is that you can not operate them while they are out of range. As a result, if you want to be able to operate your doors when you’re away from home, you may want to look into another option. 

Z-wave Smart locks

To control a Z-Wave smart lock using an internet-connected mobile device, you must be connected to a hub. This type of smart lock combines Wi-Fi and Bluetooth locks. To operate, the smart lock must be within a certain distance of the hub. If the hub cannot be placed within an appropriate range, signal range extenders can be used to help enhance the signal.

6. Disc Locks

These types of locks, sometimes known as circular locks, are suitable for storage units or boxes. This is similar to a padlock in appearance and function, but it is more secure and thicker when fastened to the door. The main component here is the curved bar, which protrudes from one side of the lock to travel towards the door handle and then locks back. These can also be detached.

7. Electronic Lock

These are the modern locking mechanisms. There are no keys or devices required to lock or open the door. Instead, a card or keypad with a unique code or bar is used to lock or open the door automatically. These are commonly seen near businesses and hotel rooms. These are powered by electricity or batteries and have a lengthy lifespan. The new improvements in electronic locks also allow others through remote entrance, even without cards, for visitors. A user can get remote access to this electric panel by using door lock types, smartphones, or connected computer systems.

8. Furniture Lock

As the names imply, these locks are great for furniture locks such as desks or cabinets. Furniture locks come in two styles: bolt style and push-style button. Bolt-style furniture locks have a flat metal plate on the side that secures and closes the door. These are particularly well-known in and around cabinets and drawers. These are particularly well-known in the vicinity of cabinets and drawers. The push-type button, on the other hand, is secured by a rod that extends from the back of the lock. The gadget is locked when the lock button is pressed from within. These would be ideal for file cabinets or sliding doors.

9. Knob LocksThe knob locks are also well-known. These days, they may be found in practically every house and apartment complex. Aside from deadbolts, they are affixed to the outside of the doors for safety and security. These door knob locks feature single or double cylinder mechanisms that lock on doors. They aren’t the safest though because hammers or other heavy items can easily break the knots. As a result, having deadbolts and doorknobs on the exact exterior is always a good idea. However, these apartment front door lock types are simple to use and convenient.

10. Latch LocksThese types of door locks are common ones that you may have seen outside. When the key is inserted into the cylinder, the internal components move, engaging the door’s bolt and latch. To lock and unlock the door, this latch slides within and out of the door frame (box). These systems frequently employ the deadbolt or spring bolt mechanisms previously mentioned.

11. Lever HandleThese types of door locks are a common choice for interior doors in homes or workplaces. They are mostly used in business contexts, such as stores or offices. This type of lock has a sizable pushdown style handle that opens the lock. Instead of a forceful twist like the knob doors, this simple lever handle gently presses. Instead of a forceful twist like knob doors, this simple lever handle simply presses. However, one should be aware that they do not provide strong security and are not suitable for primary outside doors.

12. Multipoint Lock

The multipoint lock is a unique technology that secures the side of the door with a long strip. These locks, as the name suggests, have several functions. These are relatively new on the market and are ideal for adding an additional layer of protection and safety to large interior doors.

13. Padlocks

Padlocks are one of the most common and widely used door locks. These aren’t the ones that are attached permanently. However, they are transportable. They’re available in a variety of sizes. Padlocks are divided into two types: keyed locks and combination locks. One can set up number dials to unlock the lock after someone enters the correct combination. A specific key is required to unlock a keyed lock. These are one of the simplest and quickest lock options, ideal for standard doors, office cabinets, or chambers. Furthermore, when utilizing this lock, no key is required.

14. Rim or Mortise Lock

Rim or mortise door lock types are the most preferred for big business doors, glass doors, or beautiful structures. Rim cylinder locks are attached and installed within the door, which seems to be a long metal component extended outside. Within this rim and mortise towards the edge, a box lock is commonly installed. Mortise locks are a strong option for door security. This is an excellent selection of business door locks.

15. Vending or T handle Locks

As the name implies, these locks are the most popular for vending machines. T-handle locks are a unique and easy-to-use option. To unlock a device, pull out the T-handle. As a result, the installation of new locks takes time. For ease of usage, this is the most popular form of door handle knock.

Engineering economy is calculating, estimating, and assessing the projected economic implications of options meant to achieve a certain goal. Mathematical approaches make it easier to evaluate economic options.

Engineering Economics is a critical subject for engineers. This topic helps students comprehend the need of economic information in order to be an effective manager and decision maker.

Economic concepts are utilized to make business decisions in an unpredictable and changing business environment. Economics theories cover topics such as demand, price, cost, production, competition, trade cycles, and national income, and others.

Engineering economics is concerned with the systematic assessment of the economic advantages of proposed engineering solutions. Engineering economics is concerned with technical analysis with a focus on economic factors, with the goal of helping decision-making. 

Engineering economics and conventional microeconomics are closely related. It is concerned with operational issue solving and decision making. Thus, “Engineering Economics” refers to “the parts of economics and their analytical tools that are most important to the engineer’s decision-making process.”

The seven-step methods used to support decision making are as follows: 

1. Identifying, defining, and evaluating the issue.

2. Look for options that are both prospective and realistic.

3. Including the fundamental cash flow method.

4. The decision should promote the organization’s long-term interests. 

5. Examining the economic elements of the engineering problem:

6. The preferable option is determined by the total effort. 

7. Take special care to ensure feedback is given for operational improvements.

Interest

Interest is the amount of money paid for the use of borrowed capital (from the borrower’s perspective) or the revenue generated by money loaned (from the lender’s perspective).

F= P+I

Where:

I = interest

P = principal or present worth

F = accumulated amount or future worth

 

Simple Interest

In simple interest, just the initial principle bears interest, and the amount of interest to be paid changes directly with time.

The simple interest formula is as follows:

I = Prt

The future amount is

F= P + I

F= P + Prt

Where
I = interest
P = principal, present amount, capital
F = future amount, maturity value
r = rate of simple interest expressed in decimal form
t = time in years, term in years

Ordinary and Exact Simple Interest
When the time t is specified in days, the fractional part of the year is computed with a denominator of 360, 365, or 366. The denominator in ordinary simple interest is 360, but the denominator in precise simple interest is either 365 or 366. As a result, we might argue that ordinary interest is bigger than precise interest.

Ordinary simple interest is calculated using the banker’s year.

Banker’s year

• Year = 12 months
• 1 month = 30 days (all months)
• 1 year = 360 days

The actual number of days in a year is used to calculate exact simple interest. One year consists of 365 days in the regular year and 366 days in the leap year. A leap year is one in which the month of February is 29 days long, as opposed to an ordinary year in which the month is only 28 days long. Every four years, a leap year is observed.

If d is the number of days in a month, then…
In ordinary simple interest.

• t =  d/360

In exact simple interest

• t = d/365    ( for ordinary year)
• t = d/366    (for leap year)

COMPOUND INTEREST

In compound interest, the interest earned by the principal at the conclusion of each interest period (compounding period) is added to the principal. The whole (principal + interest) will earn interest again in the following compounding period.

Elements of Compound Interest

P = principal, present amount
F = future amount, compound amount
i = interest rate per compounding period
r = nominal annual interest rate
n = total number of compounding in t years
t = number of years
m = number of compounding per year

Cash flow

The amount of money documented as revenues or disbursements in a project’s financial documents.

A cash flow diagram depicts the flow of cash as arrows on a time line scaled to the amount of the cash flow, with costs represented by downward arrows and receipts represented by upward arrows. Year-end convention costs incurred during the year are presumed to be incurred at the conclusion of the year.

Bonds

Certificates of indebtedness

Bond Value-present worth of all future amounts that are expected to be received through ownership of a bond

Discount

A discount is the difference between the future worth of a certain commodity and its present worth. There are two kinds of discounts: A trade discount is a discount offered by a seller in order to encourage trading. A cash discount is a decrease in the selling price given to entice a buyer to pay immediately.

D = F – P

Where:

D = amount of discount

F = accumulated amount or future worth

P = principal or present worth

Discount Rate – is a discount of one unit of principal per unit of time.

Fd = F – P 

P=F (1 -d) for 1 year

P= F(1-nd) for n years

The following is the link between the discount rate and the interest rate:

Where:

d = discount rate for the period involved

i = rate of interest for the same period

Annuities and Capitalized Cost

Annuity

An annuity is a series of payments that are made at regular periods. Annuities include financial activities such as installment payments, monthly leases, life insurance premiums, and monthly retirement benefits.

Elements of Annuity
A = amount of periodic payment
P = present amount of all periodic payments
F = future worth of all periodic payments after the last payment is made
i = interest rate per compounding period
n = total number of payments
m = nominal rate (see compounded interest)
t = number of years

Types of Annuities

ORDINARY ANNUITY

Payment are made at the end of each period.

The future amount F in the cash flow diagram above is the sum of payments from the end of the first period to the end of the nth period. Take note that the total number of payments is n, as is the total number of compounding periods. As a result, the number of payments and the number of compounding periods in a regular annuity are identical.

Future amount of ordinary annuity, F

Present amount of ordinary annuity, PPeriodic payment of annuity, A
Value of A if F is known:Value of A if P is known:

ANNUITY DUE

Payments are made at the beginning of each period.

F1 is the total of n ordinary annuity payments, as shown in the diagram above. F1 is one compounding period away from the future amount of annuity due at the end of the nth period. In symbol, F = F1 (1 + i).

Future amount of annuity due, F

Present amount of annuity due, P

DEFERRED ANNUITY

Payment id deferred a certain number of period.

The first payment was made at the end of the kth period, and a total of n payments were paid, as shown in the diagram. As seen in the diagram, the n payments generate a regular annuity.

Future amount of deferred annuity, F

Future amount of deferred annuity, F

PERPETUITY

Whose payment continue forever.

There is no definite future in perpetuity, thus, there is no formula for the future amount.

P is the current amount of perpetuity

From the current value of the ordinary annuity:

Arithmetic Gradient

Arithmetic gradients change by the same amount each period.

Geometric Gradient

Geometric gradients change by the same percentage each period.

DEPRECIATION

Depreciation is the decrease in the value of physical properly (except land) with the passage of time.

Book Value: the value of property as recorded in an enterprise’s accounting records.

Salvage/Resale Value: the amount earned from the sale of a property after it has been utilized.

Scrap Value: the amount of money that a piece of property would sell for if it were thrown away.

Types of Depreciation

1.Straight-Line Method

A method based on the assumption that the decrease in value is exactly proportionate to the property’s age

Straight Line Method Formula:

2.Declining Balance 

The declining balance method assumes that the yearly cost of depreciation is a set percentage (k) of the salvage value at the start of the year.Note: This method is not applicable if there is no salvage value.

3. Double Declining Balance Method

A method similar to the declining balance method in which the rate of depreciation k is substituted by 2/L.

4.Sum-of-the-Year’s-Digits (SYD)

The sum-of-the-year’s-digits method also provides for accelerated depreciation. To begin, combine all of the digits from the asset’s projected life.

Sum-of-the-years-digits method formula:

4.Sinking Fund Method

The Sinking Fund Method is based on the assumption that a sinking fund has been established in which cash will accumulate for replacement. The whole amount of depreciation that has occurred up to that point is presumed to be equal to the cumulative amount in the sinking fund at that time.

5.Units-of-Production Method

The units-of-production depreciation method depreciates assets during their useful life based on the total number of hours utilized or the total number of units to be generated by using the asset.

Units-of-Production Method Formula:

Break-Even Analysis

Calculate when revenue equals cost, or when one alternative equals another if both are dependent on the same variable.

Inflation

Inflation is defined as an increase in the price of goods and services from one year to the next, reducing money’s buying power.

Where:

FC = future cost of a commodity

PC = present cost of a commodity

f = annual inflation rate

n = number of years

In an inflationary economy, the purchasing power of money declines as costs increase:

If interest is calculated at the same time as inflation,

Where:

F = future worth of today’s present amount P

f = annual inflation rate

n = number of years

i = rate of interest

If the uninflated present value is to be calculated,

Benefits -Cost Ratio Method

Benefits-Cost Ratio-refers to a financial measurement that helps in determining the feasibility of a proposed project based on its anticipated costs and benefits. To put it another way, the ratio defines the link between the predicted added gain from a project and the expenditures associated with its completion.

The B/C ratio is defined as the ratio of the equivalent worth measure applied can be present worth, annual worth, or future worth.

Conventional B/C ratio with PWWhere: PW = present worth
                B= benefits of proposed project
                1= initial investment in the proposed projects
                O & M= operating & maintenance costs of the proposed project

Modified B/C ratio with PW:

Conventional B/C ratio with AW

Modified B/C ratio with AW:Conventional Benefits Cost Ratio with PW, Salvage value (S)

Modified Benefits Cost Ratio with PW, Salvage value (S)

Steel deck, also known as metal deck, is a galvanized steel sheet used in the construction of composite concrete floor slabs. It is also useful as a structural element in roof construction. It is used to support insulating membranes when specified as metal roof decking. Since composite metal decking has a high strength-to-weight ratio, it is ideal for use on both floors and roof construction. Other benefits of metal decking include consistent quality and proven durability, excellent fire effectiveness and lower costs.

The steel deck flooring system is a complex structure as it is a composite not only of concrete but also of a large number of steel sheets used to form the top surface. The system is used in modern buildings because it offers many advantages over other types of floors such as wood or masonry.

The main advantage of using this kind of flooring system is that it can be easily maintained. Unlike other materials which may require frequent replacement due to their natural deterioration, over time. In addition, this type provides excellent acoustic properties due to its smoothness and cleanliness, which makes your home more comfortable than ever before!

The main part of the steel deck flooring system is the steel deck board. This board is made of solid. It is made from hot rolled steel and is used as a structural platform for concrete.

Column and beam formwork installation: This assists the structural member in gaining sufficient strength to carry its own load as well as the load of other members.

In this illustration, the steel deck is connected to the beam reinforcements. It is laid along the short span of the slab as the steel deck flooring acts as a one-way slab.

Separate rebar is welded to the steel deck to fix the deck in place and ensure a better connection between the steel deck and the supporting beam.

Top bars are installed at the top sections of the slab to minimize concrete cracks due to temperature changes and shrinkage of concrete.

Since the steel deck can only withstand bending forces at the slab’s bottom midspan, extra bars are installed at the supporting beams to withstand negative bending moments developed near the support.

Monolithic pouring of the beam and slab is recommended to eliminate cold joints in concrete for better structural integrity of the structure.

Also Read:

• Types of Beam
• Types of Footings
• Flat Slab
• Concrete Stairs Reinforcement Details
• Different Types of Lintels

Steel Decking Advantage and Disadvantage

Steel decking is a popular choice for construction projects due to its numerous advantages. However, it also has some disadvantages that should be considered.

Advantages

1. For slab casting, it is lightweight and does not require any formwork or support props.

Wet concrete casting in traditional construction requires a supporting structure because wet concrete cannot support its own weight with just reinforced steel. The support is assembled and disassembled both before and after the casting, which extends the overall project timeline.

2. This reduces the amount of reinforcing steel by 20% because the deck profile itself largely contributes to the tensile reinforcing property. 

The floor deck serves as a structural component of the building and transfers horizontal forces similarly to the reinforced steel. As a result, less reinforced steel is needed. Additionally, the structure’s weight is decreased.

3. It acts as a permanent shuttering and composite member.

Instead of using temporary shuttering for the concrete casting, decks are used as permanent shuttering inside the structure, making the floor a composite structure of concrete with a stronger yield strength for the entire structure.

4. There is no need for major reinforcement unless the design parameters require it. 

The deck as a whole plane provides a stronger connection between the purlins and beams, providing greater structural strength than just major reinforced steel.

5. Slab thickness reductions result in lighter slabs and lower foundation loads, resulting in less material. 

The floor thickness in concrete casting is difficult to regulate and frequently much thicker than in floor casting with decks. The concrete floors self-weight even weakens the floor’s overall yield strength.

5. Consumption and thus cost savings 

Casting a floor with decks requires less cement and reinforced steel, which covers deck costs and more.

6.The deck can be utilized as a work surface while building

Decks keep workers safer during construction than hanging between reinforced steel and shuttering. This improves worker safety.

7. Getting the construction done faster will save time and money. 

Floor decking enables construction without shuttering and additional supports during assembly and disassembly, greatly reducing the time required for the entire project. Eventually, labor costs will decrease.

8.Metal decks can also be used in concrete roofing and cladding sheets.

In addition to decks for floors, there are also decks for roofing and wall cladding. They provide greater structural strength for the building and take less time to install and construct.

Disadvantages

1.Experienced construction teams are required.

Despite the fact that floor decking sheets make construction easier in the end. Workers are still unfamiliar with this type of construction method. As a result, workers need some time to become familiar with the decks.

2. Some countries require imports, and some areas are only available in certain areas. 

You can find local suppliers anywhere in the world, unlike with traditional reinforced steel bars. Some countries must import floor decking because they lack local steel manufacturers or since the manufacturers are not developed enough to produce it.

3. Difference in construction timeline

The floor decking reduces the overall project duration, which may necessitate rescheduling of additional projects like the frame work.

4. Higher initial cost

Although a steel-framed building is much more affordable than a wood-framed building, steel structures last much longer than wooden structures, which only last for 10-15 years. Floor decking may be more economical for long-lasting structures.

ELEVATED WATER STORAGE TANK

 Water is required for a variety of activities in the household, including cooking, cleaning, bathing, washing clothes and utensils, and so on. It is simply a strong  water supply system that can make water available at various points and for various applications throughout a house.

Elevated water tank systems will be common in large-scale communities. This kind of water storage keeps the water above ground. The structure is first built with beams and columns, and then the water tank is built on the bare frame structure (beams and columns). Since the water is stored above ground, its distribution is entirely dependent on gravitational force.

Elevated water storage tanks are used to store potable drinking water within a specific area or community. Elevated tanks allow the natural force of gravity to produce consistent water pressure throughout a system. Elevated water storage tanks can be designed using a wide range of shapes, sizes, and materials depending on the intended application and requirements of the distribution area.

Plumbing System for Elevated Water Tank

Gi pipe threading– to provide a more effective seal, especially for the pipes transporting liquids.

Gate valve: the most common type of valve in water supply systems is a gate valve. It is a linear-motion isolation valve that can either stop or allow flow. Gate valves are used to isolate specific sections of the water supply system during maintenance, repair, and new installation, as well as to reroute water flow throughout the piping system.

Elbow: it provides flexibility to change the pipe’s direction.

Adaptor: a fitting that allows two pipes to be connected together. 

Flange with flange adaptor: to connect different kinds of pipe and connect to GI and HDPE.

Drain pipe:  a drain pipe must be installed to drain the water in the tank.

Supply pipe: a pipe that distributes water from a tank to different locations.

Over flow pipe:  overflow pipes are installed on tanks to control the flow of extra liquid into the tank and divert it to a lower level in the event of an overfill situation.

Riser pipe: pipe carrying water from the source.

Components of Elevated Storage Tanks

Inlet and Outlet Pipes

Elevated water storage tanks typically have a common inlet and outlet pipe, whereas above-ground storage tanks can have either a common or separate inlet or outlet pipe. The purpose of these pipes is to bring water into the tank and allow it to exit. The purpose of having separate inlet and outlet piping configurations is to aid in water circulation within the tank. The common pipe (known as a riser) for an elevated water storage tanks typically runs up the center of the support structure that holds the tank. The inlet and outlet piping of an above-ground storage tank typically enter the tank through the bottom. In the separate inlet/outlet configuration, the inlet and outlet connections are typically located at opposite ends of the tank.

Overflow Pipe

An overflow pipe is included with each kind of tank. It is intended to allow water to exit the  tank and enter the atmosphere if the water-level controls fail. They are typically designed to discharge into a storage tank and should never be connected directly to a sewer or storm drain. They should be screened or have a weighted flap to prevent living creatures from entering the pipe and should have an adequate air gap separation from the area into which they discharge. 

Drain Connection

Regular inspections of all tanks are required. While some inspections can take place while the tank is still full of  water, it is more common to drain a tank for inspection, cleaning, and repairs. Water in a tank can be reduced by turning off the pumps that fill it. They can, however, only be lowered to the height of the outlet pipe, and a tank should never be completely drained while in service. Once the water has been lowered as far as it can while still in service, a separate drain pipe can be opened to drain the remaining water.

Monitoring Devices

Monitoring devices are commonly installed in water storage tanks as well as other water distribution facilities. These monitoring devices are discussed in greater detail in another chapter. However, they will be briefly discussed here as well. The water level is one of the most important things to keep an eye on in storage tanks. Therefore, the majority have either a physical site gauge mounted on the tank’s exterior or level sensors that can send tank level information to distant locations. These devices frequently include high and low water level alarms.

Valves

To isolate a tank from the distribution system, a valve must be installed along the tank’s inlet/outlet piping. This valve can then be closed to disable the tank for maintenance and repairs. An altitude valve is a valve that is sometimes installed in tanks. This valve is designed to close when the tank begins to overflow.

Vents

Air ventilation is typically provided at the tops of tanks to allow air to escape as the tank fills and to allow air to enter as the tank level drops. These air vents must be large enough to keep the tank from collapsing and properly screened with a mesh size of at least 14″.

Access Hatches

Access to the inside of a tank must also be provided. On the top of storage tanks, there are at least one and sometimes several access hatches. These allow personnel to enter the tank for maintenance and inspection. To prevent surface water runoff from entering the tank, these hatches must be properly constructed with rims under the cover. There are also manways at the tank’s bottom for access when a tank has been drained and removed from service for maintenance and inspection.

Ladders

Access to tank tops and inside tanks must be provided. Ladders are commonly used to gain access. Spiral staircases are used instead of ladders in some above-ground water storage tanks.

 Elevated water storage tanks are typically outfitted with three different ladders.

• The first one runs up the leg of the tower from the ground to the balcony around the  tank.
• The second ladder leads from the balcony to the top of the tank roof.
• The third ladder provides inside access by running along the inside of the tank. Outside ladders should be installed six to eight feet off the ground or have a locked metal shield around the bottom to prevent unauthorized access.

Pipe Sizing 

Correct pipe sizing ensures adequate flow rates at appliances while avoiding problems caused by over- and under-sizing.

Oversizing will imply:

• Excessive and unnecessary installation costs;
• Delay in getting hot  water from outlets;
• Higher heat losses from hot water distribution pipes

Undersizing may lead to:

• Inadequate delivery from outlets, and possibly no delivery at some outlets when used concurrently;
• Some temperature and pressure variations at outlets, particularly showers and other mixers;
• A slight increase in noise levels.

Parts of Water Distribution System

1. Service Pipe

The pipe that connects the building’s distribution system to the water main or another source of potable water supply. 

2. Supply Pipe/Distribution Pipe
A pipe within a structure or on the premises that transports water from the water service pipe to the point of use.

3. Riser
A water supply that extends one story or more in order to deliver water to branches or a group of fixtures. 

4. Fixture Branch

The water supply pipe that connects the fixture supply pipe to the water distributing pipe. 

5. Fixture Supply

A pipe that connects the fixture to the fixture branch.

Read More: Water Storage Tank | Types of Vents | Types of Pipes | Types of Fitting in Plumbing

Indirect System (Water Distribution of Cold Water Supply)

A water distribution system is a section of the water supply network that consists of components that transport potable water from a centralized treatment facility or wells to consumers to meet their needs for household, commercial, industrial, and firefighting purposes.

When the mains supply is insufficient to supply water to a significant number of properties during peak hours, indirect cold water systems are used. By using indirect cold water systems, users are putting less pressure on the supply of mains water. Due to the fact that they supply both hot and cold services, indirect cold water systems need more pipework and larger storage. If you have an indirect cold water supply, only the taps used for drinking water and food preparation will draw water from the main supply; all other taps will draw water from the storage cistern. Storage water is used in order to heat, bathe, and flush the toilet. Because there is less pressure on indirect supplies, they wear out faster than direct supplies. In addition to being quieter, indirect supplies provide some storage retention in the event that your main cold water supply is cut off. 

Indirect System of Cold Water Supply

The indirect cold water supply system has only one drinking water outlet, which is located at the sink. The cold water storage cistern in the roof space has a minimum capacity of 230 liters. Aside from its normal supply function, it also serves as an adequate emergency storage in the event of a water main failure. The system is more expensive to install and needs more pipework than the direct system, but all cistern-supplied outlets experience the same pressure.

The most common type of water supply system in modern homes is an indirect system.  Water enters the house through the rising main (the main pipe from which water enters the house), which is then branched off into the kitchen sink and storage tank, which are located either underground or overhead. Potable water only comes directly from municipal mains into the kitchen sink. The storage  tank provides water to all of the other appliances. The storage tank is kept at a sufficient height to allow water to fall into fixtures via gravity at a sufficient pressure.

Pressure of water of Indirect Water Supply System

The water storage tank must be placed at a specific height in order to obtain sufficient water pressure; this is not always possible, and thus users on the upper floors suffer from low water pressure, causing functionalities such as showering, flushing, and so on to perform poorly.

Quality of water in Indirect Water Supply System

The process of storing water in tanks and supplying it to appliances has an impact on the quality of the water.

Distribution of Pipes of Indirect Water Supply System

Water enters the house through the main supply pipe and is routed to the kitchen sink and either an overhead or underground water storage tank. All other fixtures are then supplied with water from the storage tank.

Maintenance

Tanks, whether they are above ground or underground with pumps, need to be cleaned, maintained, and protected from UV rays on a regular basis.

Water Supply

When water is stored in a storage tank, it can be used at any time of day, but a specific storage capacity is required. Only that fixture’s water supply is interrupted if a pipe is damaged. The tank supplies water to the rest room fixtures.

Wastage & Leakages in the Water Supply Systems

• Minimal water wastage. 
• The possibility of water leakage from a water storage tank

Capacity of Pumps at Source & Economy

• There is a significant additional cost for pipes and tanks. 
• Since water will only be supplied below ground, moderate pressure will do.

During Damage in Water Supply Systems

• If a pipe in the indirect water supply system is damaged, only that fixture’s water supply is interrupted, the remaining fixtures continue to receive an uninterrupted water supply from the tank.

Designing the reinforcement layout for a box culvert involves determining the arrangement and spacing of  reinforcement bars to ensure the structural integrity and load-bearing capacity of the culvert.

What is culvert?

A culvert is a tunnel that carries a stream beneath a roadway or railway. For traffic to pass through, a culvert can act as a bridge. They are usually found in natural water flows and are used as bridges or as current flow controllers. 

Culverts are installed beneath roads and highways to enable river crossings since road embankments cannot be permitted to block water flow. The culvert is helpful for regulating water flow on a road.

What is box culvert?

Box culverts are appropriate for crossing a stream with restricted flow beneath a road or railway bridge with high embankments because they are made up of two horizontal and two vertical  slabs erected monolithically. Up to a span of 4 m, reinforced concrete rigid frame box culverts with square or rectangular apertures are employed. The vent’s height is usually not more than 3 meters.

Due to their rigidity and monolithic action, box culverts are cost-effective, and they don’t require separate foundations because the bottom slab acts as a raft slab, resting directly on the earth. Smaller discharges are handled by single-celled box culverts, whereas larger discharges are handled by multicelled box culverts. The carriageway and kerbs should be long enough for the barrel of the box culvert to accommodate them.

One of the most widely used culvert designs is the box culvert. Box culverts have a concrete bottom, which allows water to flow freely (although other materials might be utilized). Reinforced concrete is used to construct box culverts (RCC). When water needs to change direction or a substantial flow of water is predicted, some box culverts can be constructed utilizing composite construction.

Box culverts can also be built so that the roadway surface is also the top of the culvert. The most difficult aspect of constructing these types of culverts is that they require a dry area to be installed, so dewatering or water diversion will be required to finish the installation.

Box Culvert Reinforcement Layout

Top Slab

• It is the structural component that permits vehicles to move. It’s a slab made of reinforced concrete. 
• It is the structural component that enables vehicles to move. It’s a concrete slab with reinforcement. To complete the road, asphalt is usually laid on top of the  slab.
• The top slab is designed for bending and shear forces generated by applied loads.

Bottom Slab

• It serves as the box culvert’s base and is intended to withstand bending and shear pressures caused by the imposed loads.

Side Walls

• They support the top slab’s vertical loads as well as bending moments.

Advantages of Box Culvert

• The box culvert is a basic structure with a strong frame.
• It’s ideal for non-perennial streams with shallow brush and weak soil.
• The bottom slab of a box culvert reduces soil pressure.
• Due to their stiffness and monolithic action, box culverts are cost-effective, and they don’t require separate foundations.
• It’s used when the foundations are particularly weak.

Tips for Culvert Installation and Selection

Consider the following factors when selecting the right type of culvert for your project:

• To minimize erosion concerns, the culvert must be installed at the proper elevation and grade.
• Maintaining closed culverts can be difficult and will get more difficult as time passes. Maintenance costs should be considered in the decision-making process.
• The culvert’s inlet and outlet must be properly planned and built. Mitered ends are the most efficient way to finish a culvert. Mitered ends will facilitate the flow process by allowing for the proper flow.
• Flared culvert outlet ends can help to reduce or eliminate scouring.
• To avoid erosion at the culvert outlet, it is suggested that rip-rap or similar structures be installed.
• If necessary, backfill the culvert on the sides, bottom, and top with the appropriate aggregate material. The correct aggregate will keep the culvert from eroding and also keep it safe.
• Culverts should be installed in natural draws on all roadways, if at all practicable.
• Consider how much traffic will pass through the culvert and how deep it will be. If culverts aren’t planned correctly, they can collapse.
• Before making the right decision, the cost of installation and the resources available should always be considered.

Read Also:

• Types of Culvert
• Bridges- Components and Classification
• Concrete Stairs Reinforcement Details
• Steel Deck Installation and Construction
• Types of Column Used in Construction

Other Things to Consider When Installing Culverts

Once you’ve decided on the type of culvert to use, double-check that all environmental permits are current. Verify that all NPDES standards have been met, as well as that the appropriate equipment is available to build the culvert, backfill it, and compact the soil as per engineering specifications.

Due to its adaptability, this construction material is still widely used due to its excellent load-bearing and thermal insulation capabilities. It has evolved over time to aid the construction industry in reaching efficiency in the buildings they create. 

This indicates that  timber will always be a cornerstone in the construction business, but it, like any other  building material, has advantages and disadvantages, which we’ve discussed below.

This indicates that timber will always be a cornerstone in the construction business, but it, like any other building material, has advantages and disadvantages, which we’ve discussed below.

ADVANTAGES

• Easy and quick to build: when compared to a traditional brick or concrete structure, a wood structure is easy and quick to build.
• Cost: constructing a timber home or structure is less expensive than any other conventional technique with the same requirements or dimensions.
• Great insulator: buildings made of bricks are recognized for their excellent insulating capabilities, but timber manages to surpass them. 
• Recyclable: timber can be reused multiple times. It is simple to recycle. 
• Timber is an elastic material: unlike brick or concrete walls, timber walls do not require a lot of thickness. In conjunction with adequate treatment, a 20m wood wall, for example, is strong enough to protect the inside area against the winter cold.
• Aesthetic appeal: timber is a beautiful material that can be used both inside and outside.
• Eco sustainable: timber is a renewable resource.
• Weight: wood is a relatively lightweight material.
• Structural strength: timber framings are extremely long-lasting.

DISADVANTAGES

• Fire resistance: timber is very combustible unless it has undergone particular treatment to provide a special fire rating.
• Mouldiness: timber has the propensity to mold if it is improperly treated or installed.
• Discoloration: untreated wood that is exposed to various weather effects discolors with time, resulting in a dark and soiled appearance.
• Swelling and shrinking: timber has a natural tendency to absorb water, known as Hygroscopy.

Steel Reinforced Concrete System

The  Steel Reinforced  Concrete (SRC) Panel System is a composite sandwich type structural panel that offers a modern alternative to traditional concrete hollow blocks (CHB) as a building material. It is composed of high tensile wires densely welded together, an expanded polystyrene (EPS) core, and concrete panels for the exterior faces.

The steel reinforced concrete panels provide both tensile and compressive strength, ensuring the structural integrity of the system. The EPS core acts as a separator and stabilizer, preventing buckling under edge-wise compression, torsion, or bending. Additionally, the core serves as thermal and acoustic insulation, enhancing the overall comfort of the building.

Compared to CHB construction, the SRC Panel System is lightweight and economical, offering numerous benefits. It allows for faster construction, saving time and labor costs. Moreover, it provides a much safer structure due to its enhanced strength and stability.

The Steel Reinforced Concrete (SRC) Panel System is an excellent choice for walls, roofs, and floors, offering a superior alternative to Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB). The panels consist of a lightweight core made of expandable polystyrene sandwiched between smooth welded wire fabrics. These wire fabrics are held together by spreader wires that are pierced through the polystyrene core and welded on both sides.

One of the key advantages of the SRC Panel System is its ease of installation. The panels are lightweight and easy to carry, making them convenient to handle during the construction process. They can be used for both load-bearing interior and exterior walls, as well as for roofing and flooring materials.

When fully installed, the combination of the polystyrene core, steel mesh, and mortar plaster provides a robust structure. These components work together to enhance flexibility and resistance against seismic and wind forces. This makes the SRC Panel System more resilient and capable of withstanding earthquakes and other natural forces compared to traditional construction methods.

With the SRC Panel System, you can build beautiful homes that not only have an aesthetically pleasing design but also offer superior structural strength compared to traditional concrete hollow blocks (CHB). Each panel of the SRC Panel System undergoes a unique and special process that ensures exceptional quality.

The strength of the SRC Panel System surpasses that of CHB. The combination of the steel-reinforced concrete panels and the special manufacturing process results in a durable and robust structure. These panels are designed to withstand various external forces, providing enhanced safety and longevity for your home.

In addition to its structural superiority, the SRC Panel System offers excellent acoustic and thermal insulation properties. The EPS core within the panels acts as insulation, reducing noise transmission and maintaining a comfortable indoor environment. It helps to keep cool air inside the house even after the air-conditioning has been turned off, contributing to energy efficiency and cost savings.

Materials of Steel Reinforced Concrete (SRC) Panel

The Steel Reinforced Concrete (SRC) Panel System is a versatile wall board that consists of several components working together to create a solid structural formation. These components include styrofoam, welded wire mesh, slant wire, and mortar plaster.

The styrofoam acts as the lightweight core of the panel, providing insulation and reducing the overall weight of the system. It helps to enhance the thermal and acoustic properties of the walls, roofs, and floors.

The welded wire  mesh and slant wire are essential for reinforcing the panel. They provide strength and stability to the structure, ensuring that it can withstand various loads and forces. The mesh and wires are securely held together, forming a sturdy framework.

To complete the system, mortar plaster is applied to the panel’s surface. This layer of plaster helps to protect the inner components, adds an additional layer of strength, and provides a smooth and finished appearance to the walls, roofs, or floors.

The combination of these components in the  SRC Panel System creates a reliable and durable structure suitable for building walls, roofs, and floors. The system’s design and construction ensure that it performs well in terms of structural integrity, insulation, and aesthetics.

Specifications

Styro Thickness	1.50”, 2.00”, 2.50”, 3.00”, 3.50”, 4.00”
Length of Panel	2.40m up to four (4) meters
Wall Thickness	100mm to 150mm
Core	Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Fire retardant grade Core
Density	17-18kg/m3
Wire	The Panel System utilizes high tensile black iron, which conforms to ASTM designation A-82 and ASTM designation A-105.This material is a welded steel fabric with an ultimate tensile strength (fy) of 100,000 psi.
Wire Diameter	Longitudinal: 2.0mmTransversal: 2.0mmJoint/Spreader: 2.3mmSpacing of Squares: 50mm X 50mmSpacing of Spikes: 50mm X 105mm
Accessories	The Panel System incorporates various types of mesh, including flat mesh, angle mesh, and U-mesh.These meshes meet all building codes for both residential and commercial construction.

SRC Panel Erection and Installation Process

The erection and installation process of SRC (Steel Reinforced Concrete) panels involves several steps to ensure a secure and durable structure. Here is a general guide to the process:

I.SITE ORGANIZATION

In a typical construction process, the following equipment and tools are commonly used:

Cement Concrete Mixer: A cement concrete mixer, often referred to as a “1-bagger,” is used to mix cement, sand, aggregate, and water to create concrete. This mixer ensures a consistent and uniform mixture, which is essential for construction projects.

Lifting Equipment: For high-rise construction projects, lifting equipment is used to handle materials and equipment. This may include cranes, hoists, and elevators, which are essential for moving heavy materials and equipment to higher levels of the building.

Concrete Sprayer/Shotcrete Machine/Manual Application: Depending on the construction requirements, concrete may be applied using different methods. A concrete sprayer or shotcrete machine can be used for large-scale applications, while manual application with tools like trowels and floats is suitable for smaller areas or detailed work.

Scaffolding and Supports: Scaffolding is a temporary structure used to provide a safe working platform for construction workers. It is commonly used for tasks such as plastering, painting, and bricklaying. Wood or metal supports are also used to provide additional support for slabs and roofing during construction.

Manual Tools: Various manual tools are used for installation and cutting purposes in construction projects. These tools include hammers, screwdrivers, wrenches, saws, drills, levels, and measuring tapes. They are essential for tasks such as assembling and installing building components, cutting materials, and ensuring accurate measurements.

Also Read:

• Formworks
• Chicken Mesh for Plaster
• Box Culvert Reinforcement Layout
• Steel Deck Installation and Construction
• Concrete Stairs Reinforcement Details
• Shotcrete

II. CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

A. WALL FOUNDATION/FLOOR SLAB

In the construction procedure, the first step is to establish the wall foundation or floor  slab. There are two common types of foundations that can be used:

• Grade beam with small dimensions (200mm width x 300mm depth)
• Directly on the ground floor or on a suspended slab that is supported by beams 

Depending on the soil test conditions, the use of SRC (Structural Reinforced Concrete) panels can be incorporated into any conventional or standard method of wall construction. The soil test helps determine the type of foundation and construction method suitable for the specific soil conditions.

B. DOWELS

The foundation layer has anchor bars, also known as re-bars, installed along its external edges. A 10 mm x 600 mm dowel was positioned alternately on both sides of the  SRC panel at intervals of 300 to 400 mm. Tie the dowels to the wire mesh using a Ga 18 tie wire. These dowels will serve as supports or anchors for the SRC panels.

C. ERECTION OF SRC WALL PANELS

SRC panels are installed in a systematic way following the wall profile, as specified in the drawings or plans, and are linked to pre-arranged anchoring bars or dowels. Ga 18 GI tie wire is used to tie the SRC panels on both sides of the wire mesh mat.

FLAT MESH: Flat mesh connectors are used between two panels on both sides. They are tied with Ga 18 GI tie wire. The purpose of these connectors is to provide extra strength and reinforcement between the panels. They also help prevent cracking of plaster, ensuring the overall durability and stability of the structure.

ANGLE MESH: Angle mesh connectors are installed in all corners of the SRC panel structures. These connectors can be in a vertical or horizontal position. Like the flat mesh connectors, they are also tied with Ga 18 GI tie wire. The angle mesh connectors serve multiple purposes. They provide additional reinforcement and strength to the corners of the panels, which are vulnerable to stress and potential cracking. Additionally, they help prevent cracking of plaster in these areas, ensuring the longevity and aesthetic appeal of the structure.

U-MESH: U-mesh connectors are used in all borders of windows and door openings. These connectors provide extra strength and act as holders for jambs and frames. They help prevent cracks in these areas, ensuring the stability and integrity of the openings. Like the other connectors, U-mesh connectors are also tied with Ga 18 GI tie wire.

D. ALIGNMENT

Once the SRC panels have been placed, they are aligned and plumbed with rigging bars and wood for support. Depending on the construction plan chosen, they could be positioned inside or outside the building.

E. SRC PANELS USED AS FLOOR SLAB AND ROOFING

The same instructions for installing vertical panels apply. In order to provide extra support at the base of the slabs and roofs, temperature bars should be affixed to the floor/roof beams and the panels joined together. These temperature bars provide additional strength while bending. The building’s usage and occupancy, as well as the design work done by the structural engineer of record, determine how far apart these bars should be spaced. These  panels function as unidirectional slabs, with the longitudinal panel running along a shorter span of the area to be covered. Interior beams/support for floor panels should be built around the structure’s perimeter, including partition areas in some circumstances. For slabs and roofs, shoring support is necessary to prevent PANEL deflection during concrete casting.

F. ROUGHING-INS

Using hot air or any basic cutting equipment, polysterene is melted or cut during the installation of electrical, plumbing, heating, and other systems. This is carried out before the plastering stage and following the full installation of the panels. When dealing with hard pipes, it is possible to cut up the  mesh and then insert the pipe into polysterene or styrophor. The restoration of the afflicted region through the use of reinforcing mesh is crucial.

G.PLASTERING

WALL PLASTERING: The structural plaster’s grain size ranges from 0 to 5mm. Once cured, its resistance has been measured to be around 19.60 MPa, or around 2,844 psi. Prior to plastering, the following checklist should be completed: 

• Examine the vertical installation.
• Make sure the panel is aligned.
• Check the dowel provisions and structural bracing.
• Examine the connectors (u-mesh, angle mesh, and flat mesh).
• Restore any wire mesh cuts made during the rough-in installation process.
• Apply the first plastering on the external side of the wall and allow it to settle for a day before applying the second plastering or plain cement finish.
• Sand mixture with cement at a mixed ratio of 1:3.

SLABS: Prior to plastering or casting in place of concrete, the following list of tasks should be completed:

• Examine the levelling of the horizontal installation.
• Check the SRC panel’s anchorage to the girders or floor beams that support it.
• Make sure of the placement of all connectors and reinforcing bars.
• Reattach the wire mesh that was cut during the installation of the rough-in.
• Examine the shoring support to prevent the SRC panel slabs from sagging.
• Apply the first coat to the bottom portion of the slabs and let it dry for a day before applying the second final plastering.
• Pour concrete over slabs using 3/8″ or 3/4″ crushed gravel that is the appropriate thickness.